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X. MEMORY

X. MEMORY. A. Memory as an information processing system. 1. Computer metaphor... 2. 4 steps or components. a. Attention : (info is remembered only if it is noticed.) b. Encoding : getting info into memory. c. Storage : keeping encoded info in memory.

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X. MEMORY

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  1. X. MEMORY

  2. A. Memory as an information processing system. • 1. Computer metaphor... • 2. 4 steps or components. • a. Attention: (info is remembered only if it is noticed.) b. Encoding: getting info into memory. c. Storage: keeping encoded info in memory. d. Retrieval: getting info out of memory.

  3. B. Overall process.

  4. C. Sensory Memory • Where we initially record sensory input or stimuli into memory. • Stores ALL stimuli that senses register • Holds LITERAL copies of those stimuli but for fraction of second to 3 seconds

  5. K Z R Q B T S G N

  6. How many letters can you recall? • Did information NEVER register? • (We can only register so much info. at once). • Or – did the image fade before you had to report letters?

  7. M X O C W U Q P S

  8. R Y I D H P Z E B

  9. C. Sensory Memory • 1. Iconic Memory: Fleeting photographic memory (visual stimuli). • 2. Echoic Memory: Fleeting auditory memory (sound). • Why do we need sensory memory?

  10. D. Short Term Memory • 1. Description: • Stores info from sensory memory before it’s forgotten or is put into Long-Term Memory. • To get info from sensory memory to short term memory: • Only info that we pay attention to • But – we have limited attentional resources – so short term memory is limited.

  11. D. Short Term Memory • 2. Has limited capacity. (7 +- 2) • only small amount of info from sensory memory is transferred to short term memory • 2. Has limited duration. • 10-15 seconds • To get info from sensory to short term – so that it can be put into long term memory: • Use rehearsal/repetition: keep attention on stimuli. (say numbers over and over again or visualize them) • Use tricks to group info to increase capacity.

  12. 1 8 9 2 • 3 0 1 9 4 • 8 3 0 1 1 2 • 6 8 2 4 0 1 2 • 2 9 1 0 7 6 3 8 • 5 3 7 9 0 1 2 4 6

  13. B. Overall process.

  14. D. Short Term Memory • 3. Comparison to working memory. • More “active” version of short term memory. • Focus on attention part. • Two major systems: verbal sounds, visual/spatial • Filter out unimportant info, focus on important info.

  15. E. Long Term Memory • 1. Description: - The stored representation of all that a person knows. - Has unlimited capacity. - Is long-lasting. • 2. Encoding: how we get info from ST to LT memory.

  16. E. Long Term Memory2. Encoding • a. Rehearsal: conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus’ research - rehearsed nonsense syllables . (BAZ FUB TUV LEQ VUM) - more rehearsed – more remembered. • is effective in getting info from ST to LT memory? • Spacing rehearsal over time

  17. E. Long Term Memory2. Encoding • b. Elaboration: Rehearse/understand info at deeper level. How? i. Differences in how info is encoded. • Craik & Tulving (1975) • visual • acoustic • semantic (meaning) Use images/stories

  18. Long Term Memory2. Encoding i. Differences in what/how info is encoded. • Self-Reference Effect: Tend to remember things that are related to ourselves better.

  19. E. Long Term Memory2. Encoding • ii. Using organization to better encoding. • Chunking: put information into meaningful units or chunks. • Hierarchies: Chunk information into broad categories that are divided into narrower categories. • Your class outlines

  20. E. Long Term Memory • c. Forgetting in the encoding stage. • Draw a penny… • Encoding failure. • If encoding is successful, and information goes from ST to LT memory… • Goes to “storage” phase.

  21. B. Overall process.

  22. E. Long Term Memory • 3. Storage a. Two types of memories: • Implicit or procedural: memories that allow for learning. • Motor and cognitive skills • Skills do not require conscious recall • Explicit or declarative: memories that let us know info and state that we know info. • Facts/general knowledge • Personally experienced events.

  23. E. Long Term Memory • 3. Storage • b. Forgetting in the storage stage • Decay Theory: If never use or work on info stored in LT memory, may be forgotten.

  24. E. Long-Term Memory • 3. Storage (what/where is it in the brain?) c. Neurobiology in memory. i. Brain structure: • Hippocampus • is essential for encoding newly acquired information (explicit). • H.M.: anterograde (can’t form new LT memories) (has short-term/working memory, and implicit memory) vs. retrograde amnesia (can’t retrieve existing LT memories) • NOT only structure involved in memory. ii. Neurons • ACH (Alzheimer’s)

  25. E. Long Term Memory • 4.Retrieval: To actually remember info and use it, need to retrieve it from LT storage (put it into ST or working memory). • LT memory has “web-like” structure importance of cues priming: the activation of particular associations in memory.

  26. E. Long Term Memory • 4. Retrieval b. Influences on retrieval. Encoding Specificity: Cues that are prominent in person’s mind during original encoding into LT memory are the most effective cues at retrieval.

  27. E. Long Term Memory • Examples of Encoding Specificity: i. Context Effects: Being in context similar to encoding at time of retrieval may facilitate remembering (e.g. smells) ii. State-Dependent Memory: Have better recall if we are in same state at retrieval as we were in encoding. iii. Mood Congruent Memory: Mood also serves as a retrieval cue.

  28. E. Long Term Memory • c. Forgetting in the retrieval stage. • i.Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Retrieve parts of memory that must be put into a whole. • ii. Interference: Learning new info can interfere with retrieving old info. - Proactive Interference: something learned earlier disrupts recall of info learned later. - Retroactive Interference: new info makes it harder to recall something learned earlier.

  29. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? • Discussed reason why we “forget” information. • But, when we do recall information, is it always correct? • Retrieving memories involves RECONSTRUCTION.

  30. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? • 1. Motivated “Forgetting”: • What we do & do not remember is biased by what we want & expect to see. • Consistency • Improvement

  31. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? • 2. Memory Reconstruction. • Importance of schemas - filling in gaps of memory. • What happens if “fill in gaps” with incorrect information? • Loftus & Palmer (1974)

  32. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? • Misinformation Effect: Incorporating incorrect information into our memory of an event. • Are these people lying?

  33. F. Are memories carbon copies of our experiences? • B. Applications • Eyewitness Testimony • Repressed Memories Debate • How can we tell true from false memories?

  34. 3 key parts • 4 key processes • How to better remember info: • rehearse rehearse rehearse (space rehearsal) • encoding stage: elaborate, deeply encode info • use meaning, self as cue, images, etc. • use chunks, hierarchies • test to see you encoded info at all • retrieval stage • avoid interference • reinstate the context (state, mood, etc.)

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