CONTINGENCY : SPECIFICATION OF THE

1. CONTINGENCY: SPECIFICATION OF THE INTERACTIVE RELATIONS BETWEEN ENVIRONMENT, BEHAVIOR, AND CONSEQUENCES. IT IS THE FUNDAMENTAL EXPLANATORY CONCEPT IN BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS. “ANALYSIS” IN “BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS” MEANS THE DISCOVERY, EXPLORATION, AND UNDERSTANDING OF HOW CONTINGENCIES FUNCTION TO DEVELOP, CHANGE, AND MAINTAIN PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR.

2. PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR • Behavior is very, very complex---but: • Behavior is not chaotic or without causes. • This means there can be a science of behavior. • There are orderly patterns to behavior. • These patterns are induced, in part, by contingencies.

3. PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR • “The outstanding characteristic of operant behavior is that it can be differentiated in form and in temporal patterning by consequent events.” • Morse, 1966

4. Operant Conditioning

5. HOW DO VARIABLE-RATIOS (VR n) AND VARIABLE-INTERVALS (VI t) COMPARE? “Variable-ratios control a higher rate than variable-intervals.” WHY IS THIS STATEMENT, AT BEST, IMPRECISE AND, AT WORST, OUTRIGHT WRONG? How can we make the statement precise? What is an essential control condition?

6. THE TWO CONTINGENCIES MUST PROVIDE EQUAL REINFORCEMENT FREQUENCY! THUS THE PROPER STATEMENT IS: “GIVEN EQUAL OBTAINED REINFORCEMENT FREQUENCY, VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULES WILL CONTROL A HIGHER RATE OF RESPONDING THAN VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULES.” BUT HOW DO WE ARRANGE THIS?

7. YOKING • ESTABLISH A STABLE PERFORMANCE • UNDER A MODERATE-SIZED VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE, SAY, VR 50. • RECORD THE TIMES BETWEEN REINFORCER PRESENTATIONS. • USE THESE TIMES TO MAKE UP A VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE—VI t. HOW? WHAT IS t? • 4. “PLAY BACK” THIS SCHEDULE TO THE SAME SUBJECT. • 5. ONCE PERFORMANCE IS STABLE UNDER THIS VI t SCHEDULE, THE REINFORCEMENT FREQUENCY UNDER THE TWO SCHEDULES WILL BE EQUAL. ARE THE RATES LIKELY TO BE THE SAME?

8. Operant Conditioning

9. QUESTION IF INSTEAD OF COMPARING THE TWO SCHEDULES ON THE BASIS OF EQUAL REINFORCEMENT FREQUENCY, WE WANTED TO COMPARE ON THE BASIS OF EQUAL RESPONSE REQUIREMENTS (i.e., the number of responses/reinforcer), HOW WOULD WE DO THAT?[POSSIBLE QUIZ QUESTION!]

10. MOLAR FEEDBACK FUNCTIONS:WHAT IS THE RELATION BETWEEN RESPONSE RATE UNDER SOME CONTINGENCY AND REINFORCEMENT FREQUENCY? “MOLAR” MEANS SOMETHING LIKE “IN THE LONG RUN”, BUT WITHOUT BEING VERY SPECIFIC OF WHAT “LONG-RUN” MEANS.

11. O-rules, functional relations B = f (r) r: feedback B: output E-rules, feedback functions r = g (B) Figure 1. The behavior-environment feedback system Operant Conditioning

12. Feedback Functions Fixed or Random Ratio ( FR n or RR n) r = mB r = reinforcer rate, B = response rate, m = reinforcers, response = 1/n Variable or Random Interval ( VI t or RI t) r = B [ a + (1-a) exp (-cB)] / (tB [a + (1-a) exp (-cB)] + 1) Baum, 1992 Operant Conditioning

13. IN VERY FEW CASES, SPECIFIC ANALYTIC FEEDBACK FUNTIONS FOR THE “COMMON” SCHEDULES HAVE NOT BEEN SPECIFIED. IN FACT, THIS TASK CAN BE VERY CHALLENGING. IN SOME FEW CASES WE CAN GUESS WHAT THE GENERAL FORM OF THE FUNCTION MIGHT BE. EXAMPLE: THE VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE.

14. Operant Conditioning

15. Operant Conditioning

16. WHAT IS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN O-RULES AND E-RULES? CAN WE PREDICT O-RULES FROM E-RULES?IN GENERAL, THE RELATIONS ARE NOT SIMPLE.

17. Operant Conditioning

18. Ratio-Like Feedback Functions

19. OTHER POSSIBILITIES