Whose voice is speaking?

1. Whose voice is speaking? Source use in academic writing Diane Pecorari

2. "If I have seen more than others, it is because I was standing on the shoulders of giants."(usually attributed to Isaac Newton).

3. Whose voice is speaking? Academic texts make frequent reference to sources, and 'it is a conventional expectation among readers of all but the most playfully postmodern of Anglophone academic texts that it will be clear at any given point whose "voice" is "speaking" ' (Groom, 2000: 15).

4. Occlusion in source use The relationship between a text and its sources (the "other voices") is ordinarily hidden (or occluded); the writer has a responsibility to make that relationship clear to the reader.

5. Transparency in source use Using sources transparently means reporting sources so that the reader gets an accurate picture of the relationship between the source and the new text.

6. What should be transparent? • the source (which text does this "other voice" come from?) • the content (what did the source author really say?) • the language (whose language is being used to report this idea?)

7. Content transparency • Reporting what your source says accurately. • Information can be left out as long as the original meaning is not distorted or changed.

8. Successful report of content The source (Cheddar, 1995) says: There can be little doubt that the moon is made of cheese, and mounting evidence indicates that the same may be true for Mercury. A successful report: According to Cheddar (1995), the moon is likely to consist of cheese.

9. Unsuccessful report of content The source (Cheddar, 1995) says: There can be little doubt that the moon is made of cheese, and mounting evidence indicates that the same may be true for Mercury. An unsuccessful report: According to Cheddar (1995) it is now certain that the moon consists only of cheese.

10. Graciela: Watkins (1985) says that the main contribution of PC may be . . . Watkins: . . . the more specific contribution of pastoral care is. . .

11. Source transparency You make your source transparent by giving a reference or citation to the source that you have used.

12. Example Cultural differences have been implicated in problems in interpersonal communication (Levy et al., 1997). Note these words: citation=a place in a text where a source is named. quotation=words repeated from another text.

13. Language transparency Letting the reader see the relationship between the language of your source and the language of your text.

14. Quoting Example: Many researchers believe that 'there are situationally, generically, or stylistically preferred compositional forms' (Scollon, 1997: 352). quote, quotation

15. Elements of a quotation “there are . . . preferred compositional forms [which differ] from language to language”(Scollon, 1997: 352). • quotation marks: open and close quotation • reference, including page number • (an ellipsis showing omitted language) • (brackets to show minor changes)

16. When to use quotation • Rarely! • When the exact form of expression is important. • Don’t use quotation simply because you think you can't express the idea clearly: give yourself the chance to grow as a writer!

17. Unsuccessful quotation Source (Cheddar, 1992, p. 74) It was once widely believed that the moon was made of green cheese. Now, however, it is known to resemble cream cheese. Report: According to Cheddar, it is "widely believed that the moon is made of green cheese" (1992, p. 74)

18. Paraphrase • is the "default option" (unless the writer signals a quotation, the reader understands the language to be original to the writer) • involves an independent rewriting of an idea, fact, etc. from another text. • does NOT mean substituting synonyms for key words!

19. Unsuccessful paraphrase Source (Cheddar, 1992, p. 74) It was once widely believed that the moon was made of green cheese. Now, however, it is known to resemble cream cheese. Report: Cheddar (1992) states that it was once widely believed that the moon was made of green cheese, while now it is known to look like cream cheese.

20. Why does transparency matter? • Opaque source use deprives the writer of important benefits (e.g., support for ideas). • Opaque source use deprives the reader of benefits (e.g. access to further information). • Opaque source use can appear to be plagiarism.

21. What not to do: • Don't focus on the mechanics, at the expense of content. • Don't focus on avoiding problems; focus on writing a strong essay from sources.

22. Points to think about: • In what way does each source help your text? • What is the relationship between your source and your text? • Is that relationship clear to your reader? • How do other writers use sources? • What information can you find about how to use sources? • What does your lecturer say?

23. Source use in brief • Academic writing is multi-voiced • The multi-voiced nature requires transparency in source reporting • Three types of transparency: content, language and source • Opaque (=not transparent) source use weakens a text • Writing effectively from sources is a skill; it takes time, practice and thought to master.

24. References • Groom, Nicholas (2000). Attribution and averral revisited: three perspectives on manifest intertextuality in academic writing. In Thompson, Paul (Ed.) Patterns and Perspectives: Insights into EAP writing practice. Reading: Center for Applied Language Studies: 14-25.