Topic 4 – Migration and Refugees

Topic 4 – Migration and Refugees A – Internal Migration B – International Migration C – Refugees D – Urbanization

A. Internal Migration • 1. Defining Migration • 2. The Rationale of Migration • 3. Theories of Internal Migration • 4. Migration Process

1. Defining Migration • Locations of high mobility • United States, Australia and Canada. • One in five people change their place of residence each year. • Double the European rate. • Internal movements where historically linked with the opening of new frontiers or people leaving the countryside to move to cities. • Recently, internal movements linked with socioeconomic factors (employment, education, retirement). • Mobility is not migration • Seasonal workers, Sojourners (international migrants seeking temporary employment in other countries), tourists, are not migrants.

1. Defining Migration • Emigration and immigration • Change in residence. • Relative to origin and destination. • Requires information • People and conditions. • Two different places (Geographical). • Two different times (Temporal). • Duration • Permanent. • Seasonal / Temporary. • Choice / constraint • Improve one’s life. • Leave inconvenient / threatening conditions. A Problems or benefits? Emigrant Immigrant B Problems or benefits?

1. Defining Migration • Geography and migration • The issue of the scale of migration (from local to international). • A very important factor identifying the type of migration. • International Migration • Emigration is an indicator of economic, political and/or social failures of a society. • Crossing of a national boundary. • Easier to control and monitor. • Laws to control / inhibit these movements. • Between 2 million and 3 million people emigrate each year. • In 2015, 244 million people (3.3%) of the world's population, lived outside their country of origin.

1. Defining Migration • Internal Migration • Within one country. • Crossing domestic jurisdictional boundaries. • Movements between states or provinces. • Little government control. • Factors: • Employment-based. • Retirement-based. • Education-based. • Civil conflicts (internally displaced population). • 16% of U.S. population 1 year or older lived in a different house the year before.

1. Defining Migration • Local Migration • No state boundaries are crossed. • Buying a new house in the same town or city. • Difficult to research since they are usually missed in census data. • Based on change of income or lifestyle. • Often very high levels of local migration. • Americans change residence every 5 to 7 years. • Europeans have double that figure. Define the three main geographical scales of migration and in which way they differ.

1. Defining Migration • Time and migration • Timing (time intervals). • Duration (time length). • Too short intervals may add noise. • Too long intervals could miss migrants. • 5 years intervals are usually considered the norm because of census taking. • What is considered a permanent relocation in terms of duration? Location of individual Country A Duration Timing 5 years Country B Country A 5 years Country C Country A 5 years

1. Defining Migration • Mobility • The mover still maintains roots at the source. • Activity space. • Difficult to quantify. • Commuting: • Cyclical migration. • Usually done on a daily basis. • Shopping. • Often “consolidated” in one trip with several stops (trip chaining). • Students/military. • Periodic migration. • Tourism or business travel. Consolidation Shopping Leisure Work Education Vacation Permanent place of residence

1. Defining Migration • Gross migration • Total number of people coming in and out of an area. • Level of population turnover. • Net Migration • Difference between immigration (in-migration) and emigration (out-migration). • Positive value: • More people coming in. • Population growth (44% of North America and 88% of Europe). • Negative value: • More people coming out. • Population decline. Gross migration Immigration Emigration Net migration

Global Net Migration (2005-2010)

Net Migration for Some Selected States, United States, 2000-2005

2. The Rationale of Migration • Background • A social and economic phenomenon. • Reasons vary by person and by household. • The rationale for a local move is likely to be different than for an international move. • Housing issues are significant (starting a household, a better or cheaper housing). • Change in work are important (new job or job transfer).

2. The Rationale of Migration • Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration (1885) • The majority of migrations involve a short distance. • Migrants who move longer distances tend to choose large centers as their destinations. • Every migration flow generates a return or counter migration. • Urban residents are less migratory than inhabitants of rural areas. • Families are less likely to make international moves than young adults. • Females are more migratory than males over short distances while males are more migratory over long distances. • Economic factors are the main cause of migration.

2. The Rationale of Migration • “Bad and oppressive laws, heavy taxation, an unattractive climate, uncongenial social surrounding, and even compulsion (slave trade, transportation), all have produced and are still producing currents of migration, but none of these currents can compare in volume with that which arises from the desire inherent in most men to ‘better’ themselves in material respects.” • Ravenstein

2. The Rationale of Migration • Selective migration • Many migrations are selective. • Do not represent a cross section of the source population. • Differences: • Age. • Sex. • Level of education. • Age-specific migrations • One age group is dominant in a particular migration. • International migration tends to involve younger people. • The dominant group is between 25 and 50: • Peak age of immigrants is 26. • Studies and retirement are also age-specific migrations: • Emergence of international retirement migration.

Age and Sex Distribution of Immigrants and Native Born Population, United States, 2015

Age Schedule of Migration, United States, 2014–2015

2. The Rationale of Migration • Sex-specific migrations • Males: • Often dominant international migrations. • Once established, try to bring in a wife. • Females: • Often dominate rural to urban migrations. • Find jobs as domestic help or in new factories. • Send remittances back home. • Filipino females 17-30 to Hong Kong and Japan. • “Mail-order bride”: • Women advertise themselves for marriage, often through specialized agencies. • Mainly from Southeast Asia and Russia. • Come from places in which jobs and educational opportunities for women are scarce and wages are low.

2. The Rationale of Migration • Education-specific migrations • May characterize some migrations (having or lacking of). • Educational differences: • 21% of all legal immigrants have at least 17 years of education. • 8% for native-born Americans. • 20% of all immigrants do not have 9 years of schooling. • Foreign students: • Often do not return to their home countries after their education. • Often cannot utilize what they have learned. • Most research-oriented graduate institutions have around 40% foreign students. Migration is a selective process, explain the main criteria behind that selectiveness.

Composition of Science Doctorates in the United States

Non US Citizens with Science and Engineering Doctorates in the United States, 1999

2. The Rationale of Migration • Voluntary migration • The migrant makes the decision to move. • Most migration is voluntary. • Involuntary • Forced migration in which the mover has no role in the decision-making process. • Slavery: • About 11 million African slaves were brought to the Americas between 1519 and 1867. • In 1860, there were close to 4 million slaves in the United States. • Refugees. • Military conscription. • Children of migrants. • Situations of divorce or separation.

2. The Rationale of Migration • Forced migration: migrants have no choice but to relocate

2. The Rationale of Migration

Net Domestic Migration by US Cities, 2012-2013

Average Annual Population Growth for the United States, 1930-2000

3. Theories of Internal Migration • Macroeconomic Theories of Migration • Wage differentials. • Low to high wages areas. • The primary issue behind migration. • Notably the case at the national level. • Equilibrate the geographical differences in labor supply and demand. Labor shortages High wages Migration Surplus labor Low wages

3. Theories of Internal Migration • Limitations to the macroeconomic model • Assumes limited barrier to migration. • Distance remains a barrier (including psychological costs such as separation from family and community). • Job market conditions such as accreditation. • Social welfare programs such as unemployment insurance. • Incomplete information about labor market (skills, job types and wages). • Unclear in wage levels eventually reach an equilibrium (high and low wage areas remain). • Migration may increase social and economic polarization. • Environmental considerations (e.g. Sun Belt). • Linguistic, ethnic and racial differences.

African American Migration in the Early 20th Century

3. Theories of Internal Migration • Biobehavioral approaches • Look at the behavior of individual migrants. • Consider the decision making process. • Satisfaction instead of rationality. • Provide migration behavior for individuals of specific characteristics. • Speculative (expectation of jobs) migration versus contracted migration (once employment is secured). • Contract migration tends to take place over longer distances.

3. Theories of Internal Migration • Life-cycle factors • Migration linked to events in one’s life. • People in their 30s are the most mobile: • Education, career, and family are being established. • Later in life, flexibility decreases and inertia increases. • Retirement often brings a major change. • Large migrations of retired people have been occurring in the direction of amenities-oriented areas. 25 50 75 Stay with parents Move to college First job Marriage Promotion Children leave home Retirement Loss of mobility

4. The Migration Process • Composed of three steps • Decision to migrate. • Decision to where to migrate. • Decision to actually migrate. • Factors related to decision to migrate • A function of the types of moves (jobs, lifestyle, education). • Residential mobility is related to life cycle changes. • 25% of moves are forced. • Factors related to where to migrate • More amenities, income or opportunities. • A the local scale, social aspiration factors.

4. The Migration Process • Factors related to the decision to actually migrate • Many may want to move, but may not make the decision. • Migrants as risk-takers. • Why, among a population in the same environment (the same push factors), some leave and some stay? • Migrants tend to be greater risk-takers, more motivated, more innovative and more adaptable. • Non-migrants tend to be more cautious and conservative. • Can be used to explain the relative dynamism in some societies, like the USA since the 1800s.

Essay: Voting with your feet Commonly, “people vote with their feet”. Using the main theories of internal migration, explain how this is taking place in an advanced society such as the United States.

B. International Migration • 1. Major International Flows • 2. Theories of Immigration • 3. The Impacts of Immigration • 4. Immigration Policy

1. Major International Flows • International migration • A factor of population change. • Three types of migration: • Internal and rural to urban migration. • International labor migration (legal and illegal). • Refugees. • International migration generates a large amount of political and economic controversy. • Migration and nation building • Considered a component of national building. • Encouraging labor recruitment (Bracero program in the United States or Guest Worker program in Germany). • Temporary short term migration encouraged long term permanent migration.

Immigration as Nation Building

Enduring Historical Controversies

1. Major International Flows • Historical examples • Massive voluntary migration to “New Worlds” in 18th, 19th, and early 20th century. • Colonial migrations: • Forced relocation of Africans in the Americas in the 18th and 19th centuries. • Chinese and Indian migrants to Southeast Asia in the 19th and 20th centuries. • Immigration curtailed worldwide in early 20th century due to global depression and WWI and II • Post WWII unleashed major migrations in Europe and Asia with boundary realignments and people leaving war torn areas. • 1947 partition of India into India and Pakistan prompted a mass migration of Hindus & Muslims.

World Migration Routes Since 1700 European African (slaves) Indian Chinese Japanese Majority of population descended from immigrants

1. Major International Flows • Three types of flows • Between developed countries: • Dominated by professionals. • Relative ease of movement for skills on demand. • Between developing countries: • Limited legal migration. • Mostly involve forced migrations (refugees of conflicts). • From developing to developed countries: • The dominant flow. • Highly controlled, resulting in an important illegal / refugees segment. • Controlling number of migrants and the level of qualification. • Humanitarian and family reunification allowances. • A fourth more marginal: from developed to developing: • Professionals. • Retirees. • Returning nationals.

1. Major International Flows World migration 2009–2011 (Gallup International) South-North: Mexico to the United States (12.2 million, equal to 6% of the global migrants); followed by Turkey to Germany; and China, the Philippines and India to the United States. South-South:Ukraine to the Russian Federation (3.7 million) and vice versa (3.5 million); followed by Bangladesh to Bhutan; Kazakhstan to the Russian Federation; and Afghanistan to Pakistan. North-North: Germany to the United States (1.3 million); followed by the United Kingdom to Australia; and Canada, the Republic of Korea and the United Kingdom to the United States. North-South: From the United States to Mexico (0.6 million) and to South Africa (0.3 million); Germans to Turkey (0.3 million); and Portugal to Brazil (0.2 million).

Explain the main international migration flows

International Migrant Population, Top 15 Countries, 2015

Immigration to the United States, 1820-2015 (Millions) Latin America Asia Southeast Europe Germany Scandinavia British Isles

Migration from Central America to the United States

Foreign Born Population Living in the United States, 2007

2. Theories of Immigration • Purpose • Trying to understand the complex demographic and economic processes behind migration. • Factors that initiate international migration. • Factors that perpetuate international migration. • Influenced by national policies • Favor immigration (getting rarer). • Focus on a specific class of migrant (common). • Restrict migration (growing). • Similar economic theory than domestic migration • Imbalances in the supply and demand of labor (wage differentials). • For sending countries no impacts on the national labor pool.

2. Theories of Immigration: Initiation of International Migration

Topic 4 – Migration and Refugees