Vietnam War Escalation: Kennedy to Johnson (1960s)

1. Unit 12: The Vietnam War Escalation: Kennedy to Johnson (1960s)

2. Vietnam? • The 1960s brought a decade of radical change in policy in concern to Vietnam and America’s role within the region. • The Cold War rose to a fever pitch during the administration of John F. Kennedy bringing the world to near nuclear apocalypse which led America to double down in all areas in the fight against Communism. (i.e. Southeast Asia) I will "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty."

3. Vietnam? • Kennedy believed that Vietnam was where America would “draw the line in the sand” so America would not lose creditability in the eyes of the world, due to failures in foreign policy. • In 1961, President Kennedy seeking more information about Vietnam and Diem sent V.P. Johnson on a “fact finding mission”, who recommended support of Diem and further commitment of America militarily to South Vietnam. • Kennedy believed that the South Vietnamese army could defeat the Viet Cong and Viet Minh, if supported by military “advisors”.

4. Bring in the “Advisors” • Kennedy’s foreign policy of “flexible response” (use of conventional arms to intervene against aggression with limited goals) led him to use the Army Special Forces (Green Berets) as military advisors to train the South Vietnamese Army and offer tactical support. • Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara got Kennedy to escalate the number of American troops (advisors) into South Vietnam and also to spray herbicides (agent orange) to defoliate the jungles.

5. Kennedy’s Policy • The Kennedy Administration developed the policy of the Strategic Hamlet program in which the local population were relocated to “secure” villages for protection and to keep them separate from the Viet Cong. (complete failure) • America then opened a command center located in South Vietnam to direct efforts in country. (U.S. Military Assistance Command –MACV) • To push back on the influence of America and Diem the NLF defeated the South Vietnamese army at the Battle of Ap Bac.

6. Change in Course • The inept, corrupt, and undemocratic administration of Diem led to anger in the army and population, the rise in the Viet Cong, and protests among the people. • The Buddhist monks in Hue protested by setting themselves on fire causing outrage in Vietnam and even in America. • As America tried to decide what direction would be taken in Vietnam both Diem and Kennedy were assassinated in November of 1963. (At Kennedy’s death 16,000 troops were in country)

7. Johnson Takes Command • After Kennedy’s assassination, Lyndon B Johnson became President inheriting a deteriorating situation in South Vietnam as a power struggle developed over control of the nation by the military. • As Johnson struggled with America’s next course of action, the American destroyer the U.S.S. Maddox conducting intelligence gathering was “attacked” by N. Vietnamese torpedo boats called the Gulf of Tonkin Incident. "The determination of all Americans to carry out our full commitment to the people and to the government of South Vietnam will be redoubled by this outrage."

8. The Gulf of Tonkin Incident

9. Americanization • Shortly after the incident was reported, Johnson asked Congress to pass the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. • The Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: • “Blank check” to Johnson in Vietnam. • Gave President direct authority to use conventional military force (American combat troops) in Southeast Asia. • Not a declaration of war, but rather a Police Action. ---Vietnam Conflict • Was the direct Americanization of the war in Vietnam with American troops becoming the main fighting force.—massive escalation “With the stroke of a pen”

10. The Vietnam Conflict (War) • In the Election of 1964, Johnson was able to win the Presidency in part by his use of the Vietnam issue. • With the Election over and the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution passed, Johnson was ready to in place a plan for “winning” in Vietnam. (Course of action highly debated) “We are not about to send American boys nine or ten thousand miles from home to do what Asian boys ought to be doing for themselves.”

11. Escalation • In February of 1965, the Viet Cong attacked U.S. Marines directly at Camp Holloway in Pleiku using guerilla attacks killing dozens of Americans. • In response, the Johnson administration deployed their three prong plan in Vietnam • 1.) Sustained Bombing of North Vietnam • Operation Rolling Thunder – Bomb supply lines, military bases, and troops until lose will to fight (failure-ish) • 2.) Strategic Hamlets – separate civilians from combatants in fortified secure villages • “win hearts of people” (failed completely) • 3.) Protect Air basses – American troops were used to protect air bases. • led to escalation of troops into direct combat taking over for failing South Vietnamese Army. Air Force Chief of Staff

12. Johnson’s Men McGeorge Bundy National Security Advisor General William S. Moreland Overall Commander in Vietnam Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara Joint Chiefs of Staff Heads of the military branches

13. American Vietnam Theatre Patrol Boats/Swift boats were used to navigate the many rivers systems of Vietnam The helicopter “Huey” was the main mode of troop transportation and cavalry in the war. Napalm Bombers Agent Orange

14. Escalation • As the carpet bombing raids were conducted throughout 1965, by the end of the year Americans troops began to fight in direct combat missions. (Battle of la Drang “Valley of death” 1st major battle of Americans ) • General Westmorland opted to use a policy of attrition by using the strategy “Search and Destroy” where ground forces are inserted into hostile areas quickly with helicopters, search out the enemy, destroy them, and withdraw quickly; never holding and securing an area. • Many areas were designated as “free-fire zones” • This method was criticized because the only measure of success was “body count”, hostiles could simply move back into area, and soldiers could not determine who was “hostile” and who was “friendly”.

15. The Draft • Many men (2/3rds of military) volunteered for service, but more troops were needed. • To facilitate the escalation of troops in Vietnam beginning in 1965, Johnson invoked the use of the Selective Service Act. • Male Citizens 18 – 25 • Men could file for a deferment, postponement, exemption due to college attendance, physical disability, conscientious objector, college student, homosexual, or hardship. • Some people chose to dodge the draft “draft dodgers” by going to Mexico, Canada, or just by defying the law.

16. Escalation • From 1965 to 1968 American forces carried out many operations to seek out and destroy the Viet Cong and their supply lines. • Most operations were counter insurgency actions against guerrilla warfare tactics, that were called Zippo Missions by the soldiers. • In 1967, the major Operation Cider Falls was conducted in the highly fortified and strategic location called the Iron Triangle. • Another major Operation in 1967 was the Battle of Khe Shanh where an American unit was pinned down in their base which led to major bombardment of the surrounding area and major confrontation of U.S forces and NVA/VC.

17. Guerilla Warfare “Bouncing Betty” “Booby Traps” “Tunnel rat” searching for VC Women and Children were used as spies, soldiers, and in some instances strapped with bombs “suicide bombers”

18. An “Impossible” War • In 1967, the VC had 97,000 people working daily to repair roads, bridges, 500,000 workers, 30,000 miles of tunnels, were integrated into the civilian population, and conducted total war. • The U.S. were spending $2 bill per month and dropping 100 million pounds of bombs onto 6 million acres, but still seemed to make no great gains. “There is a light at the end of the tunnel” “Vietcong surrender is imminent” “The U.S. has never lost a battle in Vietnam”

19. Tet Offensive 1968 • At the beginning of 1968 the Viet Cong made a massive all out offensive at every major city and base in the South to break the stalemate and the strength/moral of America; American forces were caught off guard due to a cease-fire called by NVA/NLF for the Tet holiday. (Tet Offensive) • The Tet Offensive was seen as a turning point in the Vietnam War because even though American and South Vietnamese forces were able to repeal the NVA/VC with a massive defeat; the images and reports of the attack turned the American public against the war and President Johnson leading to a change in course.

20. 80,000 VC troops attacked 100 targets at one time. Picture by Eddie Adams of Saigon Police Chief execution of VC P.O.W. – highly controversial (more to story)

21. Effects of Tet A huge “Creditability Gap” began as the news media and public began to question the war. “With America's sons in the fields far away, with America's future under challenge right here at home, with our hopes and the world's hopes for peace in the balance every day, I do not believe that I should devote an hour or a day of my time to any personal partisan causes or to any duties other than the awesome duties of this office — the Presidency of your country ... Accordingly, I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your President.”

22. Mai La Massacre • After the Tet Offensive more “search and destroy” operations were carried out to capitalize on the failure of the Tet offensive. • On March of 1968, Charlie Company of the American Division’s 11th Infantry Brigade led by Lieutenant William L. Calley in the village of Mai La rape, tortured, and murdered the inhabitants in retaliation for Tet. (not an example of American soldiers in country) • The Mai La Massacre led to international and American outrage.

23. Peace? • After the Tet offensive with the American public turning against Johnson and the Vietnam War, Johnson chose not to run again, canceled bombing of North Vietnam, and offered to open peace negotiations with NVA/VC. • Peace talks opened up in Paris, but went no where after South Vietnam withdrew from the table. (Johnson’s last failure) • After the election of Richard Nixon, peace negotiations were again resumed and the last phase of the war began.