The history of the English language

1. The history of the English language Where on Earth did it come from?

2. Indo-European languages Are all these languages related?

3. Proto Indo-European Balto-Slavic Germanic Hellenic Italic Indo-Iranian Baltic Slavic North Germanic East Germanic West Germanic Indic Iranian Umbrian Oscan Latin Old English Middle English New English French Italian Portuguese Spanish

4. Do these words sound similar?

5. The Indo-Europeans • Who were they? They were a nomadic people who ventured westward into Europe, southward into Persia and India • How long ago did they live? About 5,500 years ago • What was their language like? There is no documented evidence of it, although similarities between words make it seem probable As they became isolated, the language of each group consequently evolved independent of the rest

6. What is a dead language? • Sanskrit and Latin are dead languages • They are no longer spoken as a primary language, they haven’t changed • They do not evolve like English or Italian

7. What is a living language? • It evolves every day • Words that were common in 1950s may no longer be used today • Or they have different meanings than they used to have • Would Shakespeare know what “H-to-the-Izzo” means?

8. What is the difference between human speech and animal noises? • Animal cries are not articulate • They lack, for example, the kind of structure given by the contrast between vowels and consonants • And they lack the kind of structure that enables us to divide a human utterance into words • We can change an utterance by replacing one word by another

9. Voiced sounds • The sounds in which voice is used are called voiced sounds, but some speech-sounds are made with the vocal cords in the wide open position, and are therefore voiceless (or breathed) • In fact the English v and f are made in exactly the same way, except that one is voiced and the other voiceless • Cover your ears and utter a v, then an f

10. Nasal sounds • In a vowel sound voice is switched on and the mouth cavity is left unobstructed, so that the air passes out freely • Try saying the vowels with your mouth open • Now try saying the consanants with your mouth open • If the nasal passage is also opened, we get a nasal sound like those of French bon, “good,” and brun “brown,” but for English vowels the nasal passage is normally closed, though some American speakers habitually leave the door ajar and speak with a nasal twang

11. The tongue • The quality of a vowel is determined by the position of the tongue, lower jaw and lips, because these can change the shape of the cavity that the air passes through and different shapes give different resonances • The tongue is the most important • If we raise part of our tongue, we divide the mouth passage into two cavities of different sizes, one at the back and one at the front

12. The position of the tongue • To describe any vowel, we specify the position of the highest part of the tongue: we can do this in terms of its height • Three categories: open, half-open and closed

13. Glides • Glides occur when there are vowels in which the speech organs change their position in the course of the sound • They are also know as diphthongs • GRAPHIC on page 7 • In all vowels, the mouth passage is unobstructed • If it is obstructed at any time during the production of a speech sound the resulting sound will be a consonant

14. Vocal sounds • Any language selects a small number of vocal sounds out of all those which human beings are able to make, and uses them as its building bricks • The selection is different for every language

15. Vowels • Italian uses only seven different vowels, and manages with 27 basic sounds • Hawaiian is said to manage with only 13 • Some languages, on the other hand, use 60 or more • There are 45 basic sounds in English

16. Intonation • In English, we use intonation to distinguish between different sentences, but not between different words • In some languages, like Chinese and Thai, musical pitch is a distinguishing feature of the single word: if you change the intonation it becomes a different word • Such languages are called tone languages

17. Pronouns • The system of pronouns changes with time: four hundred years ago there were the forms thou, thee, thy and thine, and there was no form its • This is a long-term process: individuals cannot just invent a new pronoun

18. Syntax • We say the “good old times,” not “the old good times” and “A beautiful young American girl,” not “an American young beautiful girl.” There is a complicated set of rules regulating the way a phrase of this kind is put together in English (rules which English speakers have obviously internalized).

19. Subject-Verb-Object • Example: The dog (subject) bit (verb) John (object) • In normal English, the Subject (The Dog) comes before the Verb (bit) which itself comes before the Direct Object (John), and it is this word-orderwhich tells us which is the bitter and which the bitten • But this Subject-Verb-Order is not found in all languages. Many languages, like Turkish and classical Latin, have the equivalent of “The dog bit John” • Welsh, for example, has the equivalent of “Bit the dog John” • One of the major syntactic changes in the English language since Anglo-Saxon times has been the disappearance of the S-O-V and VSO types of word-order, and the establishment of the SVO type as normal

20. English vs. French • In English, an adjective normally precedes its noun, as in “white socks,” but in some languages such as French it usually follows it, “socks white” • In French, the possessive also follows the noun, as in “la mort de mon oncle,” but in this case English has a choice • The possessive can come before the noun (my uncle’s death) or after it (the death of my uncle)

21. Speech dialect • Language belongs to a group of people, not to an individual • The group that use any given language is called the speech community • In the United States, we speak English. But within this country, there are several dialects

22. The Romans • Conquered a large portion of Europe, including England • Latin, the language of the Romans, was the root of Spanish, French, Portugese and Italian • Latin influences on England fade away as Roman Empire collapses in the fourth century

23. The Barbarians • Barbarians from Germany and surrounding lands invade England • English evolved from their language

24. The evolution of English • The English language has changed enormously in the last thousand years • New words have appeared and some of the old ones disappeared • Words have changed in meaning • There have been changes in word order, the permissible ways in which words can be arranged to make meaningful utterances

25. The three stages of English • The 12th and 15th centuries were periods of particularly rapid changes in English • This makes it convenient to divide the history of the English language into three broad periods, which are usually called Old English, Middle English and Modern English • No exact dates can be drawn, but Old English covers from the first Anglo-Saxon settlements in England to about 1100, Middle English from about 1100 to about 1500 and Modern English from about 1500 to the present day

26. Old English • Beowulf is the most famous work of literature from this time, although its origins probably precedes Old English • There is some archeological evidence that Saxons settled in East Anglia and the Vale of York while Britain was still a Roman province, but the main settlements were made after the Roman legions had withdrawn from Britain in AD 410 • The traditional accounts of the landing of Hengest and Horsa in Kent place it in the year 449 • This was around the time that English was born

27. Germanic influences on English • The English language has its foundation in the West German dialects • From them derive native suffixes and prefixes which are used on words to denote special relationships such as the “y” in holy or the “en” in golden or the “ish” in childish or the “like” in childlike

28. Old English vs. Modern English • The pronouns of modern English are essentially the same as those of Old English: I, we, you, he, it, the, this, that, who, what, mine, your, each, and any • Our numbers were their numbers too, including words such as twin and other, meaning the second in Old English

29. What words remain unchanged • Our system of comparison is ancient: good, better, best and evil, worse, worst were Saxon. The way our verbs are conjugated comes from those dialects: bid, bade, bidden or sing, sang, sung • The basic vocabulary of modern English comes through the ages unchanged from Old English: love, say, live, have, own, do, be, will, bury, name, reach, long, strong, high, quick, sun, food, hand, finger, friend, brother, father, mother, stone, earth

30. Anglo-Saxon settlements • The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain must not be thought of as the arrival of a unified invading army, but rather as the arrival and penetration of various uncoordinated bands of adventurers in different parts of the country, beginning in the middle of fifth century and going all the way through the sixth • The struggle with the Romano-Celtic population was a long one, and Anglo-Saxon domination in England was not assured until late in the sixth century

31. The period of King Arthur • We know little about this struggle: it was the age of King Arthur and there are more legends than hard facts • By about 700, the Anglo-Saxons had occupied most of England and also a considerable part of southern Scotland

32. Differences between English and Scandinavian during Old English • Scandinavian has sk where English sh. Hence, there are many pairs of words in English with these phonetic differences which originally had the same meaning: skirt and shirt; raise and rear; screech and shriek

33. Anglo-Saxons and the Celts • The Anglo-Saxon conquest was not just the arrival of a ruling minority, but the settlement of a whole people • Their language remained the dominant one and there are few traces of Celtic influence on Old English • The names of some English towns were taken over from the Celts such as London and Leeds

34. Celtic influence on Old English • The failure of Celtic to influence Old English to any great extent does not mean that the Britons were all killed or driven out • There is in fact evidence that a considerable number of Britons lived among the Anglo-Saxons, but they were a defeated people whose language had no prestige compared with that of the conquerors

35. West Saxon • Four dialects immerged on the island of Britain • The unification of England under the West Saxon kings led to the recognition of the West Saxon dialect as a literary standard • The surviving texts from the Old English period are in four main dialects: West Saxon, Kentish, Mercian and Northumbrian • Mercian and Northumbrian, which are grouped together as Anglican, form the link between Old English and Modern English • SEE PAGE 105.

36. The West Saxon dialect • Although West Saxon became the literary standard of a united England in the late Anglo-Saxon period, it is not the direct ancestor of modern standard English, which is mainly derived an Anglican dialect

37. Christianity and its affects • We know little about the Anglo Saxons until Christianity came, introducing writing to them • The conversion of the English to Christianity began in about the year 600 and took a century to complete • It was carried out from two directions, the Celtic church penetrating from the Northwest and the Roman church from the Southeast

38. Assimilation • Assimilation is the changing of a sound under the influence of a neighboring one • Until about 1700, words like swan and wash rhymed with words like man and wash • At one time, the T in castle and Christmas was pronounced • In addition, the K in knight and know were also pronounced

39. Pagan Gods • Although Christianity was widely embraced, some vestiges of the pagan times survived • Tiw, Woden and Thunor (thunder), corresponding to the Scandinavian god Thor, have given their names to Tuesday, Wednesday and Thursday, while Woden’s consort Frig (Love) has given her name to Friday • More remarkably, the goddess of spring, Eastre, has probably given her name to the Christian festival of Easter

40. Norsemen and Normans • During the later part of the Old English period, two different groups of Non-English speakers invaded the country • Both groups were Scandinavian in origin, but whereas the first had retained its Scandinavian speech, the second had settled in northern France and become French-speaking • Both of their languages, Old Norse and Old French, had a considerable influence on English

41. The Vikings in England • The invasion of Europe by the Scandinavian Vikings, which took place between about 750 and 1050, was the last phase of the expansion of the early Germanic peoples • Its basic cause was perhaps overpopulation in a region of poor natural resources, but there were other contributory causes • The custom of leaving inheritance to the eldest son meant that there were always younger sons wanting to carve out inheritances for themselves

42. The Vikings and their search for new lands • Political conflicts drove many noblemen into exile • And then, in the late eighth century, Charlemagne destroyed the power of the Frisians, who had hitherto been the greatest maritime power of Northwest Europe, and thereby left open the sea-route southward for the Vikings • At about the same date, the ancient craft of boat building in Scandinavia reached the stage at which it could produce the magnificent ocean going sailing ships which served the Vikings for trade, piracy and colonization. The Vikings, by the way, are believed to have visited America 450 years before Columbus

43. The Battle of Hastings 1066 • William the Conqueror sails from Normandy (France) to England, where he becomes ruler • Commoners still speak English, although French is the official language • The Norman Conquest of 1066, known as the Battle of Hastings, had a profound influence on the English language • For some centuries, English ceased to be the language of the governing class • There was no such thing as a standard literary English • When English did once again become the language of the whole country it had changed a good deal under the influence of the conquerors

44. Norman rule • The rulers of Normandy had originally been Scandinavian Vikings, who occupied parts of northern France and were eventually recognized by the French crown • By the middle of the 11th century, the Normans had long lost their Scandinavian speech • They spoke French and were essentially French in culture • Had the French continued to dominate, this process might have been carried to completion • Since it did not happen, we have a redundancy in the English vocabulary: pairs of synonyms, one French and the other native English: hog, swine, pig, farrow, sow, and board are all terms to do with raising pigs, but beside them we place the French word pork • Other examples are hut (Eng) vs. cottage (Fre).

45. French takes over • French became the language of the upper classes in England simply because it was the language of the conquerors, not because of any cultural superiority on their part • What happened was that the native aristocracy was largely destroyed and their lands were distributed to William’s Norman followers • Anybody whose native language was English who wanted to get on in the world had to learn French

46. French loan words • French loan words first appeared mostly around London, the center of fashion and administration, and spread northwards and westwards from there • Latin was the language of the church, of scholarship, and of international communication.

47. Language of the people? • Although French was for a long time the prestige language in England, it was never the other tongue of the majority of the population • An event which contributed to the triumph of English was King John’s loss of Normandy to the French crown in the opening years of the 13th century • The ties with Normandy were severed and the Norman nobility gradually became English

48. English triumphs • The fourteenth century sees the definitive triumph of English • French was now rapidly ceasing to be the mother tongue of even the nobility and those who wanted to speak French had to learn it • When King Henry IV seized the throne in 1399, England for the first time since the Norman conquest had a king whose mother tongue was English

49. Two Forms of English • There were two standard forms of English, that of England and that of Scotland • Scotland was an independent kingdom and the language of the lowlands and of the royal court was what they called “Inglis” • The Highlands were still Gaelic-speaking

50. And the winner is… • The English that we speak today evolved from the East Midland dialect of Middle English • This was probably due to the importance of the East Midlands in English cultural, economic and administrative life • This is where Cambridge University is located