Power & Political Behavior

1. Power&Political Behavior

2. A Definition of Power Power A capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes. B A Dependency B’s relationship to A when A possesses something that B requires.

3. Leadership Focuses on goal achievement. Requires goal compatibility with followers. Focuses influence downward. Research Focus Leadership styles and relationships with followers Power Used as a means for achieving goals. Requires follower dependency. Used to gain lateral and upward influence. Research Focus Power tactics for gaining compliance Contrasting Leadership and Power These two concepts are closely interwined, but there are differences.

4. CONS Power and politics often have negative connotations because people associate them with attempts to use organizational resources for personal advantage and to achieve personal goals at the expense of other goals. PROS Managers can use power to control people and other resources so that they cooperate and help to achieve an organization’s current goals. Managers can use power to engage in politics and influence the decision-making process to help promote new, more appropriate organizational goals.

6. Bases of Power: Formal Power It is established by an individual’s position in an organization; conveys the ability to coerce or reward, from formal authority, or from control of information. The person receives these power bases because of the specific authority or roles they are assigned in the organization.

7. A power base dependent on fear. Coercive power is the ability to apply punishment. Managers have coercive power through their authority to reprimand, demote, and fire employees. Labor unions might use coercive power tactics, such as withholding services, to influence management in collective agreement negotiations. Team members sometimes apply sanctions, ranging from sarcasm to ostracism, to ensure that co-workers conform to team norms. Coercive Power

8. Many firms rely on the coercive power of team members to control co-worker behavior. For example, 44 percent of production employees at the CAMI automobile plant in Ingersoll, Ontario, believe that team members use coercive power to improve co-worker performance. The coercive power of team members is also apparent at Eaton Corp.'s forge plant in South Bend, Indiana. "They say there are no bosses here," says an Eaton Corp. employee, but if you do something wrong, you find one pretty fast. Coercive Power

9. Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. Reward power is derived from the person's ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions (i.e., negative reinforcement). Reward Power

10. Managers have formal authority that gives them power over the distribution of organizational rewards such as pay, promotions, time off, vacation schedules, and work assignments. Employees also have reward power over their bosses through the use of 360-degree feedback systems. Employee feedback affects the supervisor's promotions and other rewards, so bosses tend to behave differently towards employees after 360-degree feedback is introduced. Reward Power

11. Legitimate Power • It is an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request certain behaviors of others. This perceived right partly comes from formal job descriptions as well as from informal rules of conduct. Executives have considerable legitimate power, but all employees also have this power based on company rules and government laws. • For example, an organization might give employees the right to request customer files if this information is required for their job.

12. Legitimate Power • It also depends on mutual agreement from those expected to abide by this authority. Your boss has a power to make you work overtime partly depends on your agreement to this power. • Legitimate power is the person's authority to make discretionary decisions as long as followers accept this discretion.

13. Legitimate Power • People in high power distance cultures (i.e., those who accept an unequal distribution of power) are more likely to comply with legitimate power than are people in low power distance cultures. • Thus, an employee in Mexico (a high power distance culture) is more likely than someone in the US (a low power distance culture) to accept an order, particularly when the person's right to give that order is uncertain.

14. Legitimate Power • Legitimate power is also stronger in some organizations than in others. A 3M scientist might continue to work on a project after being told by superiors to stop working on it. This is because the 3M culture supports an entrepreneurial spirit, which includes ignoring formal authority from time to time. • More generally, employees are becoming less tolerant of legitimate power. They increasingly expect to be involved in decisions rather than be told what to do. • "People won't tolerate the command-and-control mode," says Bank of Montreal CEO Tony Comper. Thus, the command style of leadership that often guided employee behavior in the past must be replaced by other forms, particularly expert and referent power, which are described below.

15. Bases of Power: Personal Power • This type of power originate from the powerholder's own characteristics. In other words, people bring these power bases to the organization. • It is not a formal position in an organization to have power. You do not need to be a manager.

16. Expert Power • It originates from within the person. It is an individual's or work unit's capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills that they want. It is a result of expertise, skills and knowledge. • For instance, civilians working at Canada's Department of National Defence have acquired a lot of power because they know how to operate the bureaucracy. Military personnel are rotated around various Canadian Forces bases, so they depend on the civilians for their expertise as the corporate memory.

17. Expert Power • Employees are gaining expert power as our society moves from an industrial to a knowledge-based economy. Employers are more dependent on employees to achieve their corporate objectives. • Job applicants can demand generous salaries and preferential working conditions because of their expert power.

18. Referent Power • People have referent power when others identify with them, like them, or otherwise respect them. • It is based on identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal traits. • It develops out of administration of another and a desire to be like that person. • It is largely a function of the person's interpersonal skills and usually develops slowly. • Referent power is usually associated with charismatic leadership. • Charisma is often defined as a form of interpersonal attraction whereby followers develop a respect for and trust in the charismatic individual.

19. Which bases of power are most important? • Research suggest that: • Personal sources of power are most effective. • They are positively related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision, their organizational commitment, performance.

20. Model of Power and Influence • Sources of Personal Power • Expertise • Reputation • Personal characteristics • Network connections • Information • Sources of Position Power • Centrality • Criticality • Flexibility • Visibility • Relevance POWER OF AN INDIVIDUAL Selection of proper strategy to influence others Assertive responses to inappropriate influence attempts by others Increasing authority via upward influence INFLUENCE OVER OTHERS

21. Dependency: The Key To Power The General Dependency Postulate • The greater B’s dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B. • Possession/control of scarce organizational resources that others need makes a manager powerful. • Access to optional resources (e.g., multiple suppliers) reduces the resource holder’s power.

22. Dependency: The Key To Power What Creates Dependency • Importance of the resource to the organization • If they want what you have, what you control is meaningful for them, then you create dependency. • Scarcity of the resource • Scarcity-dependency relationship . • If something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase your power. • Non-substitutability of the resource • The fewer viable substitutability for a resource, the more power the control over that resource provides.

23. Power Tactics Power Tactics Ways in which individuals translate power bases into specific actions. • Influence Tactics: • Legitimacy • Rational persuasion • Inspirational appeals • Consultation • Exchange • Personal appeals • Ingratiation • Pressure • Coalitions

24. Influence Tactics Legitimacy: Relying on one’s authority position or stressing that a request is in accordance with organizational policies or rules. Rational persuasion: Presenting logical arguments and factual evidence to demonstrate that a request is reasonable. Inspirational appeals: Developing emotional commitment by appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations. Consultation: Increasing the target’s motivation and support by involving hi or her in deciding how the plan or change will be done

25. Influence Tactics Exchange: Rewarding the target with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request. Personal appeals: Asking for compliance based on friendship or loyalty. Ingratiation: Using flattery, praise, or friendly behavior prior to making a request. Pressure: Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats. Coalitions: Enlisting the aid of other people to persuade the target or using the support of others as a reason for the target to agree.

26. Sequencing of tactics Softer to harder tactics work best. Skillful use of a tactic Relative power of the tactic user Some tactics work better when applied downward or upward. The type of request attaching to the tactic Is the request legitimate? How the request is perceived Is the request consistent with the target’s values? The culture of the organization Culture affects user’s choice of tactic. Country-specific cultural factors Local values favor certain tactics over others. Factors Influencing the Choice and Effectiveness of Power Tactics

27. Influence Tactics • Some tactics are usually more effective than others. • Specifically, evidence indicates that rational, persuasion, inspirational appeals, and consultation tend to be the most effective. • On the other hand pressure tends to frequently backfire and is typically the least effective of the nine tactics. • You can also increase your chance of success by using more than one type of tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are compatible.

28. Influence Tactics Upward influence • Rational persuasion Downward influence • Rational persuasion • Inspirational appeals • Pressure • Consultation • Ingratiation • Exchange • Legitimacy • Lateral influence • Rational persuasion • Consultation • Ingratiation • Exchange • Legitimacy • Personal appeals • Coalitions

29. Power in Groups: Coalitions Coalitions Clusters of individuals who temporarily come together to a achieve a specific purpose. • Seek to maximize their size to attain influence. • Seek a broad and diverse constituency for support of their objectives. • Occur more frequently in organizations with high task and resource interdependencies. • Occur more frequently if tasks are standardized and routine.

30. Insert Figure 18.2 here

31. POLITICAL BEHAVIOR

32. Political Behavior (Cont.) Characteristics of political processes Political process Power Influence

33. Political Behavior • Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages or disadvantages within the organization. • It is outside one’s specified job requirement. • It requires some attempt to use one’s power bases. • It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for decision making when we state that politics is concerned with ‘distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization’.

34. Political Behavior • They are such as: • Withholding key information from decision makers • Joining a coalition • Whistle-blowing • Spreading rumors • Leaking confidential information about organizational activities to the media • Exchanging favors with others in the organization for mutual benefit • Lobbying on behalf of or against a particular individual or decision alternative

35. Political Behavior • Legitimate Political BehaviorNormal everyday politics • Such as: • Complaining to your supervisor • Bypassing the chain of command • Obstructing organizational policies through inaction We see this type more than the other. • Illegitimate Political Behavior • Extreme political behavior that violates the implied rules of the game. • Such as: • Sabotage • Groups of employees simultaneously calling sick • It is risky. You can be fired.

36. Politics Is in the Eye of the Beholder “Political” Label “Effective Management” Label 1. Blaming others vs. Fixing responsibility 2. “Kissing up” vs. Developing working relationships 3. Apple polishing vs. Demonstrating loyalty 4. Passing the buck vs. Delegating authority 5. Covering your rear vs. Documenting decisions 6. Creating conflict vs. Encouraging change and innovation 7. Forming coalitions vs. Facilitating teamwork 8. Whistle blowing vs. Improving efficiency 9. Scheming vs. Planning ahead 10. Overachieving vs. Competent and capable 11. Ambitious vs. Career-minded 12. Opportunistic vs. Astute 13. Cunning vs. Practical-minded 14. Arrogant vs. Confident 15. Perfectionist vs. Attentive to detail Source: Based on T. C. Krell, M. E. Mendenhall, and J. Sendry, “Doing Research in the Conceptual Morass of Organizational Politics,” paper presented at the Western Academy of Management Conference, Hollywood, CA, April 1987.

37. Factors That Influence Political Behaviors

38. Employee Responses to Organizational Politics

39. Defensive Behaviors • Avoiding Action: • Over-conforming • Buck passing • Playing dumb • Stretching • Stalling • Avoiding Blame: • Buffing • Playing safe • Justifying • Scapegoating • Misrepresenting • Avoiding Change: • Prevention • Self-protection

40. Is A Political Action Ethical? Utilitarianism Rights Justice Source: Adapted from G.F. Cavanagh, D. Moberg, and M. Valasquez, “The Ethics of Organizational Politic,” Academy of Management Review, July 1981, p. 368. Reprinted with permission.

41. Summary • Political behavior can be engaged in either to proactively promote self-interest or to defensively protect self-interest (Arkin, 1981). Proactive behaviors include responses such as assertiveness, ingratiation, coalitions, upward appeals, and exchanges of benefits (Kipnis et al., 1980). • Defensive behaviors include avoiding action, such as by playing dumb or passing the buck, avoiding blame, such as by justifying or scapegoating, and avoiding change, such as by protecting turf (Ashforth & Lee, 1990).

42. Summary • Political behavior by an individual can generate outcomes such as more favorable evaluations and job promotions (Ferris & Judge, 1991). • Political behavior can be functional or dysfunctional. • Functional political behavior enhances the achievement of organizational goals and does not harm the organization (George & Jones, 2002).

43. Summary • An example of this is forming coalitions with managers who have similar interests to lobby for an organization to pursue new strategies. • Other functional political activities include obtaining tasks and responsibilities that provide greater control over resources (e.g., being assigned to the budgeting group) or seeking indirect control over resources through engaging in networking to build alliances, the focus of the strategic contingencies model of power.

44. Summary • Alternatively, individuals seeking to acquire power may engage in activities that protect their own interests but do not help the organization or activities that are destructive to the organization. • In fact, political behavior is often associated with the exploitation of legitimate systems of influence for individual rather than organizational ends (Mintzberg, 1983). • Some examples are withholding or filtering organizational information from others who need it to perform their jobs and building empires for the sake of empire building rather than to increase organizational effectiveness.

45. Summary • Political behaviors generally promote an individual's self-interest at the expense of other employees' interests and the organization's goals, effects of political behaviors are quite different for the politician as compared with effects for other individuals in the organization. Political behavior in organizations also has been consistently negatively associated with individual and company performance and positively associated with employee stress, job dissatisfaction and turnover (e.g., Bozeman et al.,1996).

46. Summary • Models of organizational justice have been used to explain some of these negative effects (e.g., Ferris & Kacmar, 1992). When political behavior in organizations is rewarded, other employees perceive that the organization is not fair or just. For instance, employees usually expect that promotions, awards, and pay raises will be based on merit, rather than political considerations, and become dissatisfied when this expectation is violated (Cropanzano et al., 1997).

47. Impression Management (IM) Impression Management The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them. • IM Techniques: • Conformity • Excuses • Apologies • Self-Promotion • Flattery • Favors • Association Source: Based on B. R. Schlenker, Impression Management (Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1980); W. L. Gardner and M. J. Martinko, “Impression Management in Organizations,” Journal of Management, June 1988, p. 332; and R. B. Cialdini, “Indirect Tactics of Image Management Beyond Basking,” in R. A. Giacalone and P. Rosenfeld (eds.), Impression Management in the Organization (Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1989), pp. 45–71.

48. Impression management (IM) • Impression management (IM), originated by Erving Goffman (1959), describes a central aspect of role theory: how individual actors create, maintain, defend, and often enhance their social identities through assumptions, settings, props, and scripts in a play metaphor. IM explains the motivations behind complex human interactions and performances. • IM is the goal-directed attempt to influence others’ perceptions about a person, a group, and/or an organization regarding an object or event by providing self-assessed beneficial information in social interactions.

49. Impression management (IM) • The goal for the aforementioned attempt is to gain an advantageous first impression. The motive for this goal is based on the assumption that the target audience’s impressions about the individuals, groups, or organizations become reality of the target audience. Authors, philosophers, and social science researchers have long interpreted the reality each individual entity “acts” and believes in as a “stage.” In each stage, humans, individually or in groups, and organizations “play” their part on this “world stage” according to William Shakespeare (As You Like It, Scene 2, Act 7)1.

50. Impression Management • Impression management is the deliberate 'bending' of the truth in order to make a favorable impression. Managing impression includes deliberate use of any or all of: • Dress, make-up, hairstyle and other management of visual appearance. • Manner and general behavior, such as being pleasant, assertive, and so on. • Managing body language to conceal anxieties or untruths and show openness, etc. • Being economic with the truth, not telling lies but also not revealing the whole truth. • Exaggeration or complete fabrication of things that make you look good. • Downplaying or denial of negative factors that make you look bad.