Lecture 2

1. Lecture 2 • The main notions of Grammar • The word and the morpheme • Types of the opposition. Oppositional reduction • Types of morphemes • Means of form-building • Types of words (stems)

2. The main notions of grammar • The lexeme(child,children, child’s, children’s) • the grammeme(child’s, boys’, bird’s, else’s… boys, children, phenomena, teeth, mice) • the grammatical meaning (3d person,singular number) • the grammatical form • the paradigm • the grammatical category

3. Grammatical meaning Grammatical form • It is obligatory, • it must be expressed in speech • It musthaveaformofexpression (inflexions, analyticalform, wordorder, intonation). walks– iswalking process • It’s a meansofexpressinggrammaticalmeaning, • Itmaylendvarietytospeech, Many men – many a man • It mayconveytheinformationmoreemotionally He is constantly slamming the door Youarebeingnaughtytoday. The system of all grammatical lexemes constitute a forms (grammemes ) of all PARADIGM

4. Grammatical category • aunityofaspecialgrammaticalformandaspecialgrammaticalmeaning. • acertaingrammaticalmeaningwhichisexpressedbyagrammaticalform. • agrammaticalformexpressingaspecialgrammaticalmeaning. It is revealed by the method of binary OPPOSITIONS

5. Members of the oposition Unmarked (week) Make- – makes+ Marked (strong) Makes+ – making+

6. Types of the opposition • Privative • Equipollent • Gradual • Notional • Formal Go- – went+ Built+ – was built+ good- – better+ - best+) Tense, gender, number, person Case, gender, order, article determination

7. Oppositional reduction • Neutralization Man is sinful. A rose is a beautiful flower. The train arrives at 5 tomorrow • Transposition The sun had the Belsey house in her hands. In November an unseen stranger called Pneumonia touched people here and there with his icy fingers.

8. The morpheme The word • Is one of the central notions of grammatical theory. • is the smallest meaningful unit of a word-form (occurs in speech as a part of the word) • It constitutes words (MORPHS) • Is one of the basic units of language • Is a naming unit of language • Is the smallest meaningful unit of speech • The main features are: -- isolatability -- uninterruptibility -- looseness

9. The word is a nominative unit of the language formed by morphemes, which enters the lexicon of the language as its elementary component used for the formation of the sentence with other nominative elements.

10. Types of Morphemes • - Position in the word • -Meaning • - Function Root door Prefix in-doors Suffix form-al Infix teeth Lexical day lexical-grammatical Writ-er Grammatical strong-er form-building word-building

11. Types of morphemesin descriptive linguistics Criteria • Degree of self-dependence • Formal presentation • Linear characteristics • Segmental relations • Grammatical alteration • Types • Free(contrast) • Bound(contrast-ive) • Semi-bound (has written) • Overt(стен-а) • Covert(стен - -) • Continuous • Discontinuous(Is do-ing) • SegmentalTeach-er • SupresegmentalImport – import • Additive (look-ed) • Replacive (teeth)

12. Types of stems • Simple • Derivative • Compound • Composite

13. Means of form-building • Synthetic : inner inflexion (teeth, tooth) outer inflexion (tables, doing) suppletivity (went, was) • Analytical: possessing discontinuous morphemes \ bound morphemes (is waiting)

14. Criteria for distinguishing an analytical form • 1. A totalgrammaticalmeaningisbuiltonthebasisofawordcombinationofallcomponentsoftheform.Eachcomponentinisolationdoesn’tpossesstheinformationaboutthetotalmeaningofthegivenform. • 2. Amongthecomponentsoftheanalyticalformtherearenosyntacticrelations. • 3. Syntactic relations are possible for the whole form in total with its surroundings in a sentence • 4. Analytical forms are correlated with synthetic forms. Theremustbeatleastonesyntheticformintheparadigm. • 5. Auxiliary elements lose their lexical meaning and can be contracted.