Uthman (r) Military Expansion and The Great Sedition

Uthman (r)Military Expansion and The Great Sedition A.S. Hashim, MD From wikipedia.com

Sources of Reference • ibn Hisham, • Uthman bin Affan, the Third Khalifa of Islam by, Abdul Basit. • Hilya al-Awliya, Abu Nu’aym, • Uthman ibn Affan: The Man With Two Lights (Part Two) • The Murder of the Khalifa Uthman, M. Hinds, • The Arabs in History, Oxford University Press, 2002 • Encyclopædia Britannica • The Early Islamic Conquests, Fred Donner, Princeton 1981 • A Restatement of the History of Islam and Muslims • The Cambridge History of Islam, Bernard Lewis, • The Succession to Muhammad • Makers of Arab History By Philip Khuri Hitti.

In this Slide Show • The Islamic Empire • The Military • Anti-Uthman Sentiment • The Campaign • Uthman Investigating • The Rebellious in Egypt • Uthman Addresses the People • Mu'awiya and Uthman • Agitation in Medina • Armed Revolt against Uthman • The Siege of Uthman • Violence Occurred Anyhow • Age Related Conditions: Age 82

The Islamic Empire • Islamic empire expanded at unprecedented rate under Khalifa Omar, • Uthman thus directed several military expeditions to crush rebellions or re-capture the Persian territory and their vassal states. • The main rebellions were in the Persian provinces of Armenia, Atherbaijan, Fars, Sistan, Tabaristan, Khurasan, and Makran. • These provinces represent present days: Iran, Atherbaijan, Armenia Afghanistan, Daghestan, Turkmenistan and Pakistan. • In addition, other territories were also subdued in the region. • After the death of Khalifa Omar, Byzantine emperor Constantine III launched an attack but was repulsed, • due to which Uthman ordered annual raids in Anatolia to cut off the power of Byzantine.

The Military • From 647 to 651 major offensives were launched in Cappadocia, Caesarea, Mazaca, Cilicia and Isauria. • In 650–651 the Byzantine emperor Constans II was forced to enter into negotiations • The truce that followed made it possible for Constans II to hold on to the western portions of Armenia. • A naval force was built and island of Cyprus was captured in 649 followed by the capture of Crete and Rhodes. • After a naval victory against Byzantine fleet a portion of Sicily was also captured. • In 654–655 Uthman ordered for the preparation of an expedition to capture Constantinople, it was about to be launched when Uthman was killed.

The Military • North Africa was invaded in 647 and Byzantine Exarchate of Africa (which had declared its independence under its King Gregory the Patrician) was annexed. • Nubia was invaded in 652 and its capital Dongola was sacked. • Though battle remained inconclusive and a peace offer from Nubian King was accepted whereby • no party will carry aggressive moves against the other. • In 652–653 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded and its coastal areas were captured, • Before further expansion could be made Uthman was killed.

Chronology: The Military Engagements • In 645 AD, rebellions in the provinces of Azerbaijan and Armenia, were quelled. • In 647, Mu'awiya invaded Asia Minor and captured Ammuria. • In 648, Abdullah ibn al-Sar’h, captured Tripoli in Libya. • Both Mu'awiya and Abdullah ibn al-Sar’h built fleets, naval power, • In 649, Mu'awiya's fleet defeats the Byzantine and conquers Cyprus. • In 651, Uthman's generals conquer Herat in Afghanistan. • In 652-54, Abdullah bin Aamir, sent his general, Abdul Rahman ibn Samra, to the east, • where he conquered Balkh, Kabul, and Ghazni in Afghanistan.

Uthman: Military Inroads Crush Persian & Byzantine Rebellions Conquering Afghanistan Navy, conquering Cypress & Sicily Nubia invasion Campaign: North Africa

Empire: Uthman versus Omar Uthman’s empire at its peak, 656. Omar's empire at its peak, 644.

Anti-Uthman Sentiment • While Omar maintained discipline with a stern hand, • Uthman was less rigorous upon his people; • Uthman focused more on economic prosperity. • Under Uthman, the people became economically better off • and on the political plane they came to enjoy a larger degree of freedom. • No institutions were devised to channel political activity, and, in the absence of such institutions, the pre-Islamic tribal demeanor and rivalries, (suppressed under earlier Khalifa), erupted once again. • In view of these policies, the people took advantage of the liberties allowed them, • and as such became a headache for the State, which culminated in the assassination of Uthman.

Anti-Uthman Sentiment • Moreover, the foreign powers were alarmed at the breathtaking success of the Muslims, • their hope lay in subversive movements within the territories of the Ummah. • It was reported that persons like Abdullah Ibn Saba, • accomplished this aim by arguments over religion. • However, the figure of Abdullah Ibn Saba is believed by many Shi'a Muslims to be: • a fictitious one and an imaginary personality • created by certain Sunni historians to stir up anti-Shi'a sentiment. • Wilferd Madelung observes that ‘’few if any modern historians would accept Sayf's legend of Ibn Saba’’

Anti-Uthman Sentiment • Wilferd Madelung: • Discredits the alleged role of Abdullah ibn Saba in the rebellion against Uthman, • Madelung observes that ‘’few if any modern historians would accept Sayf's legend of Ibn Saba’’ • It is believed that Uthman lacked: • any political department to deal with the growing political agitation in the Islamic state, • the political leaders in various towns campaigned against Uthman. • Initially, they started with arguments over Uthman's Appointees of Benu Umayya, • who were governors of Egypt, Syria, Basra and Kufa, and Yemen • And proven to be corrupt, power hungry, and very clannish

The Campaign • The campaign of the dissatisfied was joined by the Companions who supported Ali. • The most prominent of these were Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, • who was son of Abu Bakr, but raised by his stepfather, Ali, • and Ammar ibn Yasir, who supported the right of Ali to become Khalifa on many accounts. • The campaign was also supported by some companions who had a personal grievance with Uthman, • like Amr ibn al-Aas, also an Umayya, who was stripped of the governorship of Egypt by Uthman, • and Uthman's adopted son, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa, whom Uthman had refused to appoint as a governor of any province.

The anti-Uthman Argument • The nature and the actual reasons for the anti-Uthman movement is disputed among the Shi'a and Sunni Muslims. • Many anonymous letters were written to the leading companions of Muhammad, • complaining about the tyranny of Uthman's appointed governors. • Also, letters were sent to the leaders of public opinion in different provinces about the mishandling of power by Uthman's family. • This contributed to much concern in the empire • and finally Uthman had to investigate the matter to ascertain the authenticity of the rumors. • The movement however exploited differences between the Hashemite (Ali's clan) and Umayya (Uthman's clan).

The anti-Uthman Argument • Sunni Muslims feel the claims about the governors of Uthman to be exagerated, • The Sunni Muslims believe this to be a tactic used by seditionists to overthrow the realm of Uthman, • To make him lose control over the provinces of Egypt, Syria, Kufa and Basra, where Uthman had appointed his own kinsmen. • On the other hand Shi'a Muslims regard these claims as correct, • and that Uthman's kinsmen were corrupt, who did not lead the people according to the tenets and principles of Islam, • The Shi’a give valid historical references to early narrations present in primary sources of Islamic history. • A good many social factors have to be figured in to explain: • The alarm and anxiety of the concerned people at the time.

Uthman Investigating • Uthman had to investigate, since the situation became serious and tense. He wanted to investigate: • the origins and • extent of anti-government propaganda • and its aims. • Sometime around 654, Uthman summoned all of his governors (total 12) to Medina, to discuss the problem. • In this Council of Governors, • Uthman directed the governors • To adopt all the expedients they had suggested, according to local circumstances.

Uthman Investigating • Later, in the Majlis al Shura (council of ministry): • it was suggested to Uthman • to send reliable agents to various provinces • to investigate the matter • and report about the sources of such rumors.

Uthman’s Agents to Investigate: • As a result, Uthman sent agents to the main provinces as follows: • Muhammad ibn Maslamah was sent to Kufa; • U'sama ibn Zaid was sent to Basra; • Ammar ibn Yasir was sent to Egypt, • Abdullah ibn Omar was sent to Syria. • The emissaries who were sent to Kufa, Basra, and Syria submitted their reports to Uthman, that things are OK in Kufa, Basra and Syria. • Some individuals in various locations had some personal grievances, but with which people at large were not concerned. • Ammar ibn Yasir, the emissary to Egypt, however, did not return to Medina.

The Rebellious in Egypt • The rebellious carried on with their protests calling for the Khilaafah of Ali. • Ammar ibn Yasir had been affiliated with Ali; • he left Uthman, and • instead joined the opposition in Egypt. • Abdullah ibn al-Sar’h, the governor of Egypt, reported about the activities of the opposition in Egypt. • He wanted to take action against: • Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, • Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa (adopted son of Uthman) • and Ammar ibn Yasir. • Uthman did not want his governor, Abdullah ibn al-Sar’h, to be harsh against them, due to their high status.

The Rebellious • After the Egyptian emissary's failure, Uthman looked for further developments in Egypt. • Uthman’s strategy was to address grievances and instruct his governors in this regard. • In 655, Uthman called for the people with the grievances to assemble at Mecca for the Haj. • He promised them that all legitimate grievances would be redressed and set right. • He summoned the governors and the "Amils" throughout the empire to come to Mecca on the occasion of the Haj.

Uthman Addresses the People • Uthman addressed the people and gave a long explanation of the criticism about himself and his administration and then said: “I have had my say. Now I am prepared to listen to you. If any one of you has any legitimate grievance against me or my Government you are free to give expression to such grievance, and I assure you that, I will do my best to redress such grievance” • The rebels realized that the people in Mecca were satisfied with Uthman’s answer • That was a psychological uplift for Uthman.

Mu'awiya and Uthman • It is said that before going back to Syria, Mu'awiya, (Uthman’s cousin): • Suggested to Uthman to go to Syria • Since the atmosphere over there was peaceful. • Uthman rejected his offer, saying that he didn't want to leave the city of Muhammad (referring to Medina). • Mu'awiya then suggested to send a strong force from Syria to Medina • to guard Uthman against any possible attempt by people to harm him. • Uthman rejected that suggestion too, saying • that the Syrian force in Medina would be an incitement to civil war, • and he could not be a party to such a move.

Agitation in Medina • After the Haj of 655 things remained quiet for some time. • But with the dawn of the year 656, Medina, the capital city of Uthman, became a hotbed of intrigue and unrest. • Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr returned to Medina from Egypt, and became active in the campaign against the Khilaafah of Uthman. • When the crisis deepened in Medina, • Uthman addressed the congregation in the Masjid al-Nabawi • and gave an explanation if not rebuttal of the claims against him. • The general public was again satisfied with Uthman. • Uthman had hoped that after explaining his position, • and having offered full defense for his actions, • the circulating claims against him would cease.

The Gathering Storm • The politics of Egypt played the major role in the stand against the Khilaafah, • Uthman summoned Abdullah ibn al-Sar’h, the governor of Egypt, to Medina • to consult with him as to the course of action to be adopted. • In coming to Medina ibn al-Sar’h left the affairs of Egypt to his deputy, • and in his absence, Ibn Abi Hudhaifa (the adopted son of Uthman) staged a coup d’état and took power. • On hearing of the revolt in Egypt, Abdullah hastened back • but Uthman was not in a position to offer him any military assistance • and, accordingly, Abdullah ibn Saad failed to recapture his power.

Armed Revolt against Uthman • In the middle of 656AD, Uthman’s governor of Kufa, Abu-Musa al-Ash’ari: • was unable to control the province. • In Basra the governor, Abdullah ibn Aamir, had left for Haj, • and in his absence the affairs of the province fell into a state of confusion. • The three main provinces of: • Egypt, Kufa, and Basra • became essentially independent from the Khilaafah of Uthman, • and became the hotbed of the unsightly, highly charged, and disgruntled men. They seeked action.

Rebels in Medina • From Egypt a contingent of about 1,000 people were sent to Medina, • with instructions for Uthman to change his administration for the better. • Similar contingents marched from Kufa and Basra to Medina. • Medina was rife with restless people needing action. • They sent their representatives to Medina to contact the leaders of public opinion. • The representatives of the contingent from Egypt waited on Ali, and offered him the Khilaafah in succession to Uthman, which Ali refused.

Seeking an Alternative to Uthman • The representatives of the contingent from Kufa waited on Al-Zubair, • while the representatives of the contingent from Basra waited on Talha, • and offered them their allegiance as the next Khalifa, • which were both turned down. • In proposing alternatives to Uthman as Khalifa, the rebels neutralized the bulk of public opinion in Medina and: • Uthman's faction could no longer offer a united front. • Uthman had the active support of Benu Umayya of course, • and a few other people in Medina, • but the rest of the people of Medina chose to be neutral and help neither side.

Before the Siege of Uthman • The situation in Medina was a big gain for the rebels. • When they discovered that people of Medina would offer no resistance, • they entered the city of Medina and laid siege to the house of Uthman, • essentially taking it over but not confining the Khalifa. • The rebels declared that no harm from them would come to any person who chose not to resist them. • Uthman instructed his supporters to refrain from violence • but his various servants (about 40 of them) appealed for permission to fight against the rebels, • along with some citizens of Medina.

Intrigue • The rebellious were assured by Uthman with instructions in their favor • Satisfied, the Egyptians left Medina for Egypt. • On their way they saw a man heading for Egypt. • Upon asking him, he said he had a letter to the governor of Egypt • They took the letter, • and the instructions for the governor were to arrest these people and put them to the sword if need be. • Feeling double-crossed, and very inflamed, the Egyptians went back to Medina to deal with Uthman. • It is claimed the letter was written by Marwan without Uthman knowing.

The Siege of Uthman • The early stage of the siege of Uthman’s house was not severe, • the rebels merely hovered around the house and did not place any restrictions on him. • Uthman went to the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi as usual, and led the prayers. • The rebels offered prayers under the leadership of Uthman. • While Uthman addressed the people in the Al-Masjid al-Nabawi he was criticized by opponents. • At this the supporters of Uthman took up clubs on his behalf. • Tempers flared on both sides, hot words were exchanged between the parties, • and that led to the pelting of stones at one another.

Observation • The happenings in the mosque showed that: • most of the people of Medina • or at least those in the mosque • preferred not to fight, but to watch developments. • The rebellious took on a new approach, • they changed strategy, and tightened the siege of Uthman’s house • thus they confined Uthman to his house. • Uthman was denied the freedom to move about, • and was not allowed to go to the mosque.

The Siege Continues • As the days passed, the rebels, be they from Egypt, Kufa or Basra, intensified their pressure against Uthman. • They forbade the entry of food or provisions, • and later water as well was stopped, • Conditions became bad, deteriorating. • Umm Habiba , a widow of Muhammad, came with some water and provisions but was not allowed. • A’isha, made a similar attempt, and she was also prevailed upon and had to go back. • Strangely, previously among those inciting to fight Uthman was A'isha, wife of the Prophet, among others such as Talha.

The Pilgrims out of Medina to Mecca • With the departure of the pilgrims from Medina to Mecca for Haj: • the hands of the rebellious were further strengthened, • The rebellious took advantage of the opportunity, • And before the pilgrimage was over they took action against the Khalifa • During the siege, Uthman was asked by his supporters to let them fight against the rebels. • Uthman, however, prevented them to avoid bloodshed of Muslims by Muslims.

Violence Occurred Anyhow • Unfortunately for Uthman, violence occurred anyhow. • The gates of the house of Uthman were shut and guarded by Abdullah ibn al-Zubair and others. • The sons of Ali, Al-Hasan and Al-Husain sons of Ali, were also guarding the gates of Uthman’s Palace. • Strangely, among those inciting to fight Uthman was A'isha, wife of the Prophet, along with others such as Talha. • A skirmish erupted between the opponents and the supporters of Uthman at the gate, • some anti-Uthman partisans were killed, • and the rebels were finally pushed back. • Among the supporters of Uthman, Al-Hasan ibn Ali, Marwan and some other people were wounded.

Age Related Conditions: Age 82 • At an advanced age of 82 yrs a person often suffers from one, two, or more of the debilitating conditions: • The eyesight suffers from cataract, need for glasses (not available then), compromised vision, • Hearing difficulty of variable degree, • Prostate hypertrophy, leading to interrupted sleep, • Forgetfulness, and difficulty of concentration for long periods, • Difficulty in making instantaneous but hard decisions. • Being the head of State, with the need of critical decisions, Uthman must have felt an enormous weight on him: • This could explain his management of the Ummah at his time, • More so, if he had had one or more of the conditions affecting the elderly.

An Overview • After Omar, the momentum of expansion continued • There was need for consolidation after such breathtaking expansion. • The management of Uthman was going smoothly during the first half of his Khilaafah. • When Benu Umayya became entrenched, at the expense of the Ummah, • And when their mismanagement, abuse of power, Jahiliya habits and its reprehensible ways became evident. • This raised the ire of people like Ibn Mas’ood, Abu Dhar, Ammar, and numerous other very sincere Muslims. • People love Islam too much than to see it compromised. • The end result was the Sedition and its aftermaths.

An Overview Continued • It seems the management of the enormous Ummah had become too difficult and too weighty, • So Uthman decided to make Marwan as secretary of State. • As a man, Marwan was capable, clannish, worldly, and greedy. • Marwan was persuasive, but he was given much leeway in matters of the State and its management. • Marwan persuaded Uthman to give the highest preferences to his kinfolk, Benu Umayya. • Benu Umayya were power mongers, worldly, greedy, and holding to power at any expense. • Their rule, as a dynasty, proved corrupt and simply unacceptable to many • The end result was the tragic events, not only to Uthman but to the Ummah afterwards.

The Sedition الفتنة

In Conclusion • Uthman and the Great Sedition • Discussed in this slide show are: • The Islamic Empire and the Military • Anti-Uthman Sentiment • The Campaign • Uthman Investigating • The Rebellious in Egypt • Mu'awiya and Uthman • Agitation in Medina • Armed Revolt against Uthman • The Siege of Uthman • Violence Occurred Anyhow • Age Related Conditions: Age 82

Finally we quote the Quran:

THANK YOU Be in Allah’s Care Dr. A.S. Hashim

Uthman (r) Military Expansion and The Great Sedition