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Development

Development. Origin and Meanings. In the Beginning. In 1945 the Second World War ended Europe was in ruins Old colonial rule couldn’t be restored Decolonization began First India, Pakistan and the Philippines (1940s) Then other Asian countries and Africa (1950s-1960s)

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Development

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  1. Development Origin and Meanings

  2. In the Beginning • In 1945 the Second World War ended • Europe was in ruins • Old colonial rule couldn’t be restored • Decolonization began • First India, Pakistan and the Philippines (1940s) • Then other Asian countries and Africa (1950s-1960s) • Ending with South Pacific (1970s) • Latin America,19th century

  3. The journey ahead • The new states were faced with many problems notably • Low incomes • Little industry • Poor health • Low education levels • Inadequate infrastructure • New political institutions • High expectations of populations

  4. The answer: Development • Start on the road to development • Truman Doctrine and Marshall Aid • Optimism because of • Marshall Plan • Russia • External aid • Commitment

  5. Meanings of Development • Infrastructure • Social • Spiritual and Cultural • Growth • Change • Progress • Living Standard • Basic Needs • Happiness • ???

  6. Meanings of Development (Contd.) • Growth and economic abundance? • Sustainability? • Security? • Illusion? • Freedom? • The end of inequality?

  7. Meanings of Development (Contd.) • “A positive word… is virtually synonymous with progress” (Allen and Thomas 2000:23) • “Good change” (Chambers 1997) • “Development is a seductive term” (Gasper 2004)

  8. Why meanings matter?

  9. Meanings and Approach • Competing political aims and social values • Contrasting theories of social change

  10. Major Six (6) Development Paradigms Modernisation Dependency Environment/Ecology-Sound Development Basic Human Needs (BHN)/BNA Liberation; and Endogenous Development

  11. Shift in Development Policy Approaches 60’s : Local Market 70’s : Local Administration System 80’s : Local Community 90’s : Local Society

  12. Development Approaches and Level of Target（Factors for Sustainability） Needs Conventional Approach Capability Building through Experiential Learning Process Participatory Approach (PA) Social/ Institutional Mechanism PLSD

  13. Local Societal System Local Administration Outer System LocalMarket Household Inner System LocalCommunity

  14. Liberation and optimism • End of World War 2 also marked beginning of the end for colonialism • India, Philippines and Indonesia independent before 1950 • Other Asian and African countries followed in the 1950s and 1960s • Caribbean and eventually South Pacific in 1970s and 1980s • Note that Latin American independence came in 19th century

  15. We have the technology • The new states were embarking on a path to development and modernisation • Catch up with the rich countries • Russia as example • Marshall Plan as example • New committed elites • Nation-state organised for development • Rich world and new multilateral institutions committed to development

  16. Modernisation Theory • Theoretical framework drew on classical sociology and the concept of universal progress • ‘Less developed’ (or traditional) societies were to acquire the characteristics common to ‘more developed’ ones • Task was to remove obstacles • Acknowledged the complex interaction between social, cultural, political and economic life

  17. Stages of Economic Growth • According to Rostow (1960) possible to identify all societies in their economic dimensions as lying within 1 of 5 categories • Traditional society • Preconditions for take-off • The drive for maturity • The age of high consumption

  18. Critiques of modernization theory • Ethnocentric as modernisation = westernisation • Suggested that West in golden age despite obvious domestic problems (eg poverty) • Cold War gave impetus to the promotion of capitalism as an antidote to communism • Ideological screen for post-war neocolonialist dominance • There was no smooth path to modernity • Underplayed importance of relations between nations and classes • Was capitalism acting the same way in developing countries as previously in Europe

  19. Multiple problems • By 1970s for many developing countries • Persistent poverty • Poor growth record • Widening gulf between rich and poor countries • Inequitable global power relations • Increasing poor country debt • Self-interested elites • Corruption • Authoritarian rule • Civil wars and disorder

  20. Imperialism, dependency and world systems • Classical Marxist theory saw the development of capitalism as an essential stage of history • But faced with evidence of uneven development, Marxists began to question unilinear theories • ‘Backwardness’ began to be seen as a result of modernisation • Bourgeoisie did not reinvest in productive ventures as had done in the West • Developing countries also served interests of rich former colonial powers

  21. Imperialism, dependency and world systems • Dependency and world systems theories argued that underdevelopment was a function of unequal relations between societies • Look at role of a country in the world capitalist system • International division of labour • Exogenous forces NOT endogenous ones explained underdevelopment

  22. Imperialism, dependency and world systems • Core capitalist countries exploited peripheral capitalist countries • Chains of exploitation through to rural areas of developing countries • Unequal exchange led to drain of resources from periphery to core • Adverse terms of trade led to enhanced inequalities and active underdevelopment

  23. Critiques of dependency and world systems • Portraying world economy as a zero-sum game • No empirical support for delinking from world system • Underestimation of endogenous forces • Failure to predict collapse of socialist economies • Did capitalism cause underdevelopment? • How can Asian and BRIC success be explained?

  24. Neo-liberalism • State-centred models of development lost their attraction • End of Cold War • Criticism of foreign aid • Criticism of development results • Failure of ISI • Rejuvenation of economic liberalism in wealthy nations, notably USA and UK

  25. Neoliberalism • New orthodoxy was for market-oriented development • Neoliberal principles included • Self-interest • Market fundamentalism • Minimal state • Low taxation • State re-oriented to underpin and support market-friendly policies

  26. Washington Consensus • Controlling inflation through wage controls • Privatization of publicly owned enterprises • Balancing state budgets through reducing government expenditure • Eliminating or reducing government expenditure • Eliminating or reducing state subsidies on basic goods • Generation of foreign exchange through export-oriented industries • Elimination of controls on foreign capital

  27. Neo-liberalism • According to Fukuyama liberalism’s triumph over communism marked • ‘the end point of mankind’s ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of human government’ • Huntington disagreed and said the 21st century would be characterized by ‘civilization politics’

  28. Clash of civilizations • Huntington’s 4 periods of modernity distinguished by the nature of conflict: • Pre-1789: wars between princes and principalities • 1789-1918: wars between nation-states in the age of nationalism and colonialism • 1918-late 1980s: communism v liberalism with 3rd world as territory of dispute • 1990s-: cultural divisions leading to conflicts between nations and groups of different civilizations

  29. Toning down neoliberalism • Over the past decade neoliberalism has come under attack • Debt relief • Rise of good governance • Greater emphasis on poverty alleviation and social goals • Idea of development as rights • Millennium Development Goals

  30. Challenging orthodoxy • Throughout the history of development have been writers and movements that have challenged orthodoxy • Alternative approaches discard idea that development is about emulating western experience • In the 1960s and 1970s Freire promulgated the ‘pedagogy of the oppressed’ while Schumacher advanced the notion that ‘small is beautiful’

  31. Challenging orthodoxy • Environmental challenges • Environmental degradation persistent theme • Focus on pressures on the planet • Neoliberal see first poverty alleviation then environmental protection • Critics say neoliberal model will destroy the very basis of life • Globalization of food chains desensitizes us to environmental consequences

  32. Challenging orthodoxy • Feminist challenges • Gender politics has permeated all levels of the political process • Ecofeminists claim that environmental degradation is a product of patriarchal structures • Ecofeminists claim that women have more environmental knowledge than men • Some see globalization as exploitation of women as cheap workers • Reduction of state welfare under neoliberalism affected women more than men

  33. Challenging orthodoxy • Post-developmental challenges • A wholesale critique of western structures of knowledge and power • Abandon grand designs and theories • Collective action and popular struggles in grassroots politics • Seeking to give communities and individuals power over their own environments

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