Chapter Two

1. Chapter Two Studying Human Sexuality

2. Sex, Advice Columnists, and Pop Psychology • The sex information/advice genre seeks to: • Inform—transmit information that is factual and accurate • Entertain—attract audiences through hosts’ personalities as well as high-interest or bizarre material • Primary purpose is to sell magazines or increase ratings of TV shows. • Often includes moral judgments and may be superficial in disseminating information • Use social science and psychiatry to give authority, even though the commentator is not an authority on the subject matter.

3. Use and Abuse of Statistics • Popular media may summarize social science research in an oversimplified or distorted manner • Sensationalize findings • Over generalize results of research • Report statistics that agree with widely-held preconceptions • Popular media may not emphasize the importance of replication

4. Thinking Critically about Sex • Basic scientific principles require a commitment to objectivity • observation of reality while excluding researchers’ feelings or beliefs • Subjectivity is to be avoided • Difficult to achieve especially in the area of sexuality • Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and promote egocentric and ethnocentric thinking

5. Value Judgments: Limitations • Example: “College students should be in a committed relationship before they have sex”. • Does not tell us what motivates people • Does not tell us how frequently people behave in a given way • Does not tell us how people feel • Only tell us how we feel, and are subjective statement(s). • Objective statements describe actual behavior.

6. Value Judgments vs. Objectivity • Value judgments only reveal the thoughts or feelings of one person • Objectivity describes reality • Objective positions can be tested • Cultural relativity requires that we examine appropriateness within the cultural norms where it exists

7. Value Judgments vs. Objectivity • Value judgments imply how a person ought to behave • Objective statements describe how people actually behave • Value judgments cannot be empirically evaluated • Objective statements can be empirically evaluated

8. Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes Interfere with the Pursuit of Knowledge • Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or conclusions according to an individual’s personal thoughts. Opinions reflect personal values or biases. • Biases are personal leanings or inclinations. Biases allow us to select information that supports our own personal views and ignoring the information that does not. • Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized beliefs about an individual, a group, or an idea, etc.

9. Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes Interfere with the Pursuit of Knowledge • Stereotype examples: • Old people cannot enjoy sex like young people. • Gay men are good interior decorators. • Lesbian women hate men • Men love women for sex, women have sex with men for love.

10. Stereotypes • Stereotypes structure knowledge by managing how we process knowledge – what we see, what we notice, what we remember. • A Stereotype is a type of schema. A schema is a way of organizing information which often underlies stereotypes • Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify discrimination or social groups • Women • Poor people • African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans • Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people

11. Stereotypes • Again, stereotypes structure our knowledge by shaping: • What we see • What we notice • What we remember • How we explain things • Ashleigh Brilliant - “ Seeing is believing. I wouldn’t have seen it if I hadn’t believed it.” • We see what we expect to see and ignore what we do not expect or want to see.

12. Common Fallacies: Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism • Fallacy: an error in reasoning that undermines our understanding of a subject • Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own personal experience and values are generally held by others • Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and customs are innately superior to others’

13. Attitudes and Behavior • Attitude: a predisposition a person has to act, think, or feel in certain ways, attitudes are built from knowledge (cognitive and experiential) and belief systems • Behavior: the way a person acts • Behavior does not always predict attitude and vice versa • Frequent discrepancies exist between the two on individual and cultural levels and can result in confusion

14. Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism • Often occur in our consideration of different ethnic groups • Transmitted from one generation to another • Prevent understanding from a culturally relative position • Oscar Wilde – “Morality is simply the attitude we adopt towards people we personally dislike.”

15. Sex Research Methods • Scientific Method: the method by which a hypothesis is formed from impartially gathered data and tested empirically. • Induction: drawing a general conclusion from specific facts • Seeks to describe the world rather than to evaluate or judge it

16. Research Concerns • Ethical • Concerns use of human beings as subjects of research • Methodological • Concerns center on information-gathering techniques and accuracy • A representative sample of people is necessary to draw accurate conclusions

17. Ethical Issues • Informed consent • Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits • Agreement to participate may be withdrawn • Protection from harm • Emotional distress must be avoided • Identity of subjects must be confidential

18. Sampling • Sample: a portion of a larger group of people are observed or studied • Inferences are made to the larger group • Good samples are: • Random • Representative • Unbiased

19. Limitations of Samples Restrict Generalizations • Depend on volunteers or clients • Takes place at universities or colleges with student volunteers • Some ethnic groups are underrepresented • Gay men, lesbian women, bisexual and transgendered people may not be publicly identified

20. Clinical Research • An in-depth examination of an individual or group that comes to a specialist for assistance with disorders and problems • Limited by an emphasis on pathologicalbehavior • Shaped by cultural definitions of what is pathological (ex. in the 19th century masturbation was considered pathological)

21. Survey Research • Questionnaires • Administered quickly • Forced choice allows many formats • Interviews • Allow more information to be gathered • Allow subjects to guide topics • Internet Survey • More individuals may be reached, even in remote areas • Participants may be higher SES groups • Sexual diaries • Collect richer information • May work well with some subjects but not all

22. Survey Research Limitations • Subjects may report self behavior with bias • Interviewers may collect information with a bias • Subjects may be embarrassed in an interview • Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time passes • Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors such as how long sexual encounters last

23. Observational Research • The researcher unobtrusively observes and makes notes about people’s behavior • Serious ethical issues in observing sexual behavior without subjects’ knowledge or consent • Known observation generally affects behavior

24. Participant Observation • The researcher participates in the behaviors which she or he is studying • Used frequently by anthropologists • Is sex research controversial because it compromises objectivity?

25. Experimental Research • The systematic manipulation variables to examine the effect on behavior. This research enables the researcher to isolate a single factor under controlled circumstances to determine its influences. • Independent variables: factors that can be manipulated and changed by the experimenter • Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be affected by changes in the independent variable • Correlation Variables – determine the relationship of two or more variables

26. An Example of Experimental Research • Examine effect of various amounts of alcohol on sexual arousal • Alcohol—independent variable • Plethysmograph measurement of arousal—dependent variable • Causal effect demonstrated

27. The Sex Researchers • In 19th century, Western sexuality began to be studied from a scientific framework • Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex: fetishism, sadism, masturbation, homosexuality • Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our thinking about sexuality • 20th century researchers viewed sexuality more positively

28. The Sex Researchers • Three themes evident in later 20th century sex researchers’ work: • Belief that sexual expression is essential to an individual’s well being • Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual activity, including homosexuality • Belief that female sexuality is equal to male sexuality

29. Richard von Krafft-Ebing(1840-1902) • Psychopathia Sexualis (1886): • A collection of the case histories of fetishists, sadists, masochists, and homosexuals • Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to “hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and masturbation • Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that had never been documented

30. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • Dramatically impacted Western ideas • Sexuality begins at birth with five-stage development: • Oral stage (birth to 1 year) • Anal stage (age 1-3) • Phallic stage (age 3-5) • Latency stage (age 6-puberty) • Genital stage (puberty onward)

31. Sigmund Freud: Phallic stage (“The Critical Stage”) • Oedipal Complex: Boy develops sexual desires for mother and fears father • Castration anxiety: Fears his father will cut off his penis: castration anxiety • Electra complex: Girl develops sexual desire for father and fears mother • Penis envy: Girls never acquire the “lost penis” and therefore fail to develop an independent character like that of boys • By age 6, boys and girls resolve their complexes by relinquishing their desires for their parents and identifying with their same-sex parent

32. Sigmund Freud: Impact • Freud was pioneering in commitment to science and explorations of the unconscious • Over the past generation, his influence among American sex researchers has dwindled • Lack of empiricism • Inadequate description of female development • Questions of relevance to contemporary society • In the field of sex research, his work is now primarily of historical interest

33. Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) • One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality • Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910) • Pointed out the relativity of sexual values • Appealed to case studies as well as studies in animal behavior, anthropology, and history • Challenged view that masturbation was abnormal • Documented existence of women’s sexual desires • Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital condition

34. Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) • The Kinsey Reports • Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) • Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) • Statistical documentation of American sexual behavior • Showed a significant discrepancy between public standards and actual standards of sexual behavior

35. Alfred Kinsey: Impact(video) • Sexual Diversity and Variation • Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects • Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had sexual experiences with members of the same-sex • Reevaluation of Masturbation • Important for women • Harmless • Pleasurable

36. Alfred Kinsey: Controversy • Same sex behavior • Labels of “heterosexual” and “homosexual” were inadequate ways of understanding sexual behavior • Devised the “Kinsey Scale” • Rejection of normal/abnormal dichotomy • Sexual differences are a matter of degree, not kind • Became an advocate of the tolerance • Decline of society

37. Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6

38. Alfred Kinsey: Criticisms • Statistical methodology: unrepresentative sampling • Emphasis on quantification of sexual behavior • Rejection of the psychological dimension (reducing behavior to genital activity)

39. William Masters (1915-2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925-) • Human Sexual Response (1966) • Detailed the sexual response cycles of hundreds of male and female research subjects • Combined clinical observation with direct measurement of genital arousal using electronic devices

40. Masters and Johnson: Outcomes • Similarity of male and female sexual responses • Women achieve orgasms via clitoral stimulation • Legitimized female masturbation

41. Masters and Johnson: Outcomes • Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) • Argued that sexual problems were not the result of neuroses or personality disorders • Rather, lack of information, poor communication, or relationship conflict contributed • Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual problems with great success

42. Contemporary Research Studies • Several large, national, or multi-site sexuality related studies have recently been conducted • The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994) • The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual) • The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual) • The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic) • College Alcohol Study (every few years) • Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project

43. Contemporary Research Studies • Large scale national sexuality related studies • Smaller scale studies • Difficulties due to political and social climate • Restricted funding

44. The National Health and Social Life Survey 1994 • Americans are largely exclusive. • On an average, Americans have sex about once a week. • Extramarital sex is the exception, not the rule. • Most Americans have fairly traditional sexual behaviors. • Homosexuality is not as prevalent as originally believed. • Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the exception for women. • Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical problems. • Three percent of adult Americans claim never to have had sex.

45. The National Survey of Family Growth 2002/2008 • Periodically, the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) conducts the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) to collect data on marriage, divorce, contraception, infertility, and health of women and infants in the United States. • See results – pg. 52-53, text

46. The Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2009 • The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), conducted biannually by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), measures the prevalence of six categories of health risk behaviors among youths through representative national, state, and local surveys using a self-report questionnaire. Sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV, are among those assessed. • See Results – p. 53, text

47. National College Health Assessment • Since year 2000, every fall and spring term the American College Health Association has conducted research at colleges and universities throughout the United States to assess students’ health behaviors and their perceptions of the prevalence of these behaviors among their peers. Areas covered are alcohol, tobacco, and other drug use; sexual health, weight, nutrition, and exercise; mental health, injury prevention, personal safety, and violence. • See Results – p. 54, text (see graph, next slide)

48. Figure 2.2 - Percentage of College Students Who Reported Having Oral Sex, Vaginal Sex, and Anal Intercourse in the Past 30 Days and the Percentage Reporting Using a Condom or Other Protective Barrier, Spring 2012

49. The National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior • The most expansive nationally representative study of sexual and sexual-health behaviors, the National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB), was published in 2010, 16 years following the first nationally representative study, the 1994 National Health and Social Life Survey described earlier. The NSSHB, a study based on Internet reports from 5,865 American adolescents and adults aged 14–94, provides a needed and valuable updated overview of Americans’ sexual behavior and reveals an increase in sexual diversity since the NHSLS. • See Results – p. 55, text

50. Emerging Research Perspectives • Feminist scholarship • Focus on gender issues • Examines distribution of power in sexual relationships • Gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender • Focus on personal experience • Examines social and psychological components