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HSC PDHPE – CQ3 DP1. CQ3 – What ethical issues are related to improving performance?. 1. Use of drugs. 1. Use of drugs. An ergogenic aid is any procedure, process or substance that enhances performance (or is perceived to enhance performance).
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HSC PDHPE – CQ3 DP1 CQ3 – What ethical issues are related to improving performance?
1. Use of drugs • An ergogenic aid is any procedure, process or substance that enhances performance (or is perceived to enhance performance). • An ergogenic aid can have one or more of the following effects: delay the onset and perception of fatigue, act directly on muscle fibres, supply fuel for muscular contraction, act on the heart and circulatory system, affect respiration, mask pain and hasten recovery.
1. Use of drugs • Ergogenic aids are not only drugs. • There are five classes of performance-enhancing aids. They are: • mechanical aids (equipment, skill development and biomechanics) • pharmacological aids (drugs) • nutritional aids (dietary manipulation) • psychological aids (mental rehearsal, goal-setting and hypnosis) • physiological aids (blood-doping, training, recovery procedures and oxygen uptake).
1. Use of drugs • Most of these aids are accepted as legal and safe methods of improving athletic performance; however, some are illegal. • Ergogenic aids that pose ethical, clinical or legal questions are banned from use in athletic events.
1. Use of drugs • Certain techniques are continually modified and improved to enhance performance in a fair manner. These include: • carbohydrate-loading • water, vitamin and mineral consumption • training techniques • warm-up techniques • improved equipment • mental rehearsal.
1. Use of drugs • The use of drugs to enhance performance has occurred throughout the history of sport. • Success and fame have brought rich rewards from a variety of sources, and competition for a portion of these is intense. • The intrinsic desire to win and the lure of millions of dollars in prize money, and more than this again in sponsorships and endorsements, cause some athletes to take any measure to improve their performance.
1. Use of drugs • The use of illegal performance enhancing drugs and methods is a significant problem in modern sport. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) has developed a list of banned substances and practices in sport. The IOC believes that doping: • … contravenes the ethics of sport and medical science. Doping consists of the administration of substances belonging to prohibited classes of pharmacological agents and/or the use of various prohibited methods.
1. Use of drugs • The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority's (ASADA) aims to protect Australia's sporting integrity through the elimination of doping. • Various methods are used in order to gain a vital edge over an opponent. While some are safe and within the rules of the sport it is the illegal performance enhancing drugs and methods that are the focus of sporting bodies. • The classes of substances that are prohibited are stimulants; narcotics; anabolic steroids; diuretics; and peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues.
1. Use of drugs • The methods that are prohibited include blood-doping and pharmacological, chemical and physical manipulation. • Some drugs are subject to certain restrictions. • These drugs are alcohol, cannabis, local anaesthetics, corticosteroids and beta-blockers.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income • The use of ergogenic aids, many of which are prohibited by sporting bodies, can be seen to be a major temptation to gain an edge over competitors. • For some, the risk may seem to be worth it given the relatively small penalties for illegal use (maybe as little as six months suspension), the effectiveness and more undetectable nature of modern drugs, and the low rate of testing outside the immediate top competitors in many countries; especially when compared with the prospect of being rewarded with a multi-million-dollar lifestyle.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income • At risk, however, is not only the health and general well-being of the athlete but also the true spirit of sport, the rights of hard-working athletes and the perception of certain sports by the general public.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income • Athletes from many sports succumb to the temptation and may then suffer devastating consequences. • There is also an opposing point of view that by legalising the use of drugs the potential harms will be lessened as the drugs can then be taken under medical supervision. • Those holding this view claim that such legalisation would also ‘level the playing field’ and provide an even competition.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income Physical effects • Athletes take drugs to make their muscles bigger, recover from hard training sessions much more rapidly, increase blood volume and oxygen-carrying capacity, reduce pain and speed up or slow down the central nervous system. • The aggressive feelings that come from taking certain drugs may also make them appealing to various athletes. • While giving the athlete an unfair advantage over others there are many physical harms that come from the use of these drugs. • As many athletes may take these drugs at doses that are significantly higher than those prescribed for medical reasons, the harmful effects can be magnified.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income Reputation • Sport is considered to be an important part of life. • Many countries have built their reputation around the sporting success of teams and individuals. Sport is also considered to be enjoyable and fair. • When the aim is about winning at all costs the reputation of countries, individuals and the sport itself can be tarnished. Already, certain sports such as weightlifting, cycling and athletics have achieved this unwanted status. • Improved performances and victories may be tainted by questions raised about the legitimacy of the athletes. As many athletes are considered role models around the world, implicated athletes lose the respect of their peers and the spectators and may be vilified by the media. This may, in turn, affect the athlete’s own psychology.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income Sponsorship and income • Millions of dollars are invested in sports by governments and sponsors. The suspicion of illegal drug use in a sport may so tarnish the reputation of the sport and associated individuals that funding and sponsorship are withdrawn. This can result in the sport finding it difficult to grow and even the honest competitors may lose income. • Cycling has found itself in this situation where its premier event, the Tour de France, has been tarnished by riders using a variety of drugs to gain an advantage. Whole teams have folded after sponsorship has been removed as the result of just one rider on the team testing positive to drugs. • Teams have also found it difficult to attract sponsorship as companies maintain that cycling teams are ‘a marketing nightmare’.
the dangers of performance enhancing drug use, eg physical effects, loss of reputation, sponsorship and income • Can you name the following athletes and their sport? A B C D E
Can you name the following athletes and their sport? Michael Phelps - Cannabis Ben Johnson - Steroids Maradona - Cocaine Ben Cousins – lots of Drugs Marion Jones - Steroids
for strength (human growth hormone, anabolic steroids) • Increased muscle size provides additional strength for an athlete, which provides an advantage over opponents. • Athletes use various training methods to achieve this. However, some athletes may look to drugs to assist with this gain in strength. • The two most commonly used drugs for this purpose are human growth hormone and anabolic steroids.
human growth hormone • Human growth hormone (HGH) is a powerful anabolic hormone that occurs naturally in the human body. • It is produced by the pituitary gland in the brain and stimulates the growth of muscle, cartilage and bone. • A sportsperson is likely to take HGH to increase muscle size. • Competitors in events that require power and short bursts of explosive strength would benefit the most.
human growth hormone • It also allows muscles to recover more quickly, therefore allowing the athlete to train harder and more often. • HGH also increases the number of red blood cells, boosts heart function and makes more energy available by stimulating the breakdown of fat. • This can provide some benefit to endurance athletes. Strengthening of connective tissue is reported to reduce injury.
human growth hormone • There are, however, many potential health risks. • One of the most common side effects of HGH misuse is acromegaly. • The major symptoms of this are swelling of the hands and feet and a coarsened facial appearance, such as protruding jaw and eyebrow bones. • Organs such as the heart, liver and kidneys will also undergo excessive growth, leading to potentially life-threatening problems.
human growth hormone • The most common of these problems is cardiomyopathy, where the heart loses its ability to pump blood and the rhythm becomes irregular. • Hypertension and diabetes may also occur. • There is also a risk of menstrual irregularities and impotence as well as an increased risk of cancer due to the abnormal growth of cells.
anabolic steroids • Anabolic steroids are drugs that resemble testosterone, a hormone that is produced in the testes of males and, to a much lesser extent, in the ovaries of females. • Testosterone is partially responsible for the developmental changes that occur during puberty and adolescence and is also involved in controlling the development of all tissues, including muscle. • Because testosterone and related drugs affect muscle growth, raising their levels in the blood can help athletes increase muscle size and strength.
anabolic steroids • This is known as the anabolic effect and allows the athletes to train harder and longer, with improved recovery from training sessions. • Athletes who use anabolic steroids also claim that they reduce body fat and recovery time after injury. • Steroids may also promote increased aggression and competitiveness in athletes.
anabolic steroids • Anabolic steroids are often taken in cycles during training prior to competition and then stopped for several weeks before a competition to reduce the likelihood of positive testing. • Testosterone is responsible for stimulating development of male sexual characteristics (androgenic effect) as well as the build up of muscle tissue (anabolic effect).
anabolic steroids • Effects such as increased body hair and a deepening of the voice are not always desirable, particularly in women. • To counteract these side effects, manufacturers of anabolic steroids aim to minimise the androgenic effects and maximise the anabolic effects.
anabolic steroids • As anabolic steroids mimic naturally occurring hormones they can interfere with normal hormone function. • This may result in a wide range of harmful side effects, such as increased risk of liver and cardiovascular diseases (particularly hypertension), acne, male and female infertility, abnormal menstrual cycles, shrinking testicles, stunted growth in teenagers as a result of premature closure of the growth plates of the bones, premature baldness, increased aggression and mood swings. • They may also produce psychological dependence.
for aerobic performance (EPO) • Manufactured naturally by the kidneys, erythropoietin (EPO) is a peptide hormone that acts on bone marrow to stimulate the production of red blood cells and regulates the concentration of red blood cells and haemoglobin in the blood. • EPO can be produced artificially using DNA technology. • By injecting EPO, athletes aim to gain a benefit by increasing their concentration of red blood cells, which are responsible for supplying oxygen to the cells, including muscle cells, and consequently, increasing their aerobic capacity. • EPO may also increase the body’s capacity to buffer lactic acid.
for aerobic performance (EPO) • There are various health risks associated with the use of EPO. If EPO levels are too high the body will produce too many red blood cells. • This can lead to thickening of the blood, which clogs capillaries, causing blood clotting, heart attack and stroke. • It can also place the user at increased risk of contracting infectious diseases, such as hepatitis and HIV/AIDS. • Users of EPO are also at risk of having an autoimmune reaction whereby EPO antibodies destroy the EPO that is produced naturally by the body, which then leads to anaemia. • In fact, EPO has been implicated in the deaths of several athletes (especially cyclists).
to mask other drugs (diuretics, alcohol) • With increased use of drug testing and severe penalties for those caught, athletes will look for ways to avoid detection. • There are drugs available that may assist the athlete in returning a negative test. • Two commonly used drugs to mask other drugs are diuretics and alcohol.
diuretics • Diuretics are agents that reduce the amount of fluid in the body by increasing the amount of urine produced. • Athletes may use these substances to conceal prohibited substances (for example, anabolic steroids) by diluting their urine in an attempt to mask a drug test. • Drug tests require a minimum concentration in order to detect the presence of a substance. The increased urine produced reduces the concentration of other matter.
diuretics • However, the detection of a diuretic in a urine drug test constitutes a positive test. • Side effects from the use of diuretics include dizziness or even fainting; electrolyte imbalance and dehydration; muscle cramps; a drop in blood pressure; loss of coordination and balance; inability of the body to regulate temperature; confusion, mental changes or moodiness; and cardiac disorders.
alcohol • Alcohol is a diuretic. • It actively encourages the body to lose more water than it takes on by halting the production of the body’s anti-diuretic hormone. • This speeds up the loss of fluid from the body, which may mask drugs in a test or assist in removing traces of drugs taken before a test.
alcohol • Alcohol use is banned in-competition in certain sports as it can increase self-confidence, which may result in the person taking risks that he or she would not normally take. • It may also cause loss of coordination and balance and, through dehydration, the inability of the body to regulate temperature. • Generally, though, it reduces athletic performance and is not widely used.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • Drug-testing procedures are highly sophisticated and reliable. • However, the people who manufacture and use banned substances or practices are often able to stay ahead of testing procedures by authorities. The Australian Sports Anti-Doping Authority (ASADA) is responsible for drug testing in Australia.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • Drug testing involves the testing of urine of athletes. This can be done: • Randomly • in bulk (a large number of athletes at once) • according to their finishing positions.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • The drug tests are designed to detect and deter abuse of performance enhancing drugs by competitors. • This is deemed to ensure a fair competition where the characteristics and training of an athlete are the factors that produce the winner. • It also benefits the athletes by promoting good health above the desire to win at all costs and protects athletes from the inherent harms of many drugs.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • The testing procedures for drug abuse in sports are strict and the testing procedure must be closely adhered to so that all athletes receive the same treatment. • Yet, at times, some athletes deem tests to be unfair. • Athletes may suggest a test is unfair because the athletes themselves are responsible for knowing what is banned, despite the fact that additions are made almost daily to the list of banned substances. • As such, the best possible solution for an athlete is to avoid the use of any drugs unless listed on the allowed substance list.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • For the testing procedure to be of benefit it is vital to ensure that the sample actually comes from the athlete, so the testing officer must be able to see the urine flow from the athlete into the bottle. • Male athletes are required to strip to their waist and lower their shorts to their knees to ensure no devices may be used to transfer foreign material. • Female athletes must also be observed very closely while they produce a sample.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • While necessary, this procedure can be very awkward and embarrassing. • For young athletes, producing a urine sample under these conditions can be traumatising. • For many people, irrespective of age, being observed while giving a urine sample is not a comfortable situation. • The testing procedure can be further complicated if the athlete involved has been taking part in an endurance sport and is dehydrated and therefore unable to comply.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • Drug testing is no longer restricted to being done at competitions but is now carried out year round, with random tests occurring any time, any place. • The athlete is notified of the requirement for a test by phone, in person or by letter. • This benefits the authorities as this year-round short-notice and no-notice testing is seen as the most effective means to reduce the use of ‘training drugs’, such as steroids.
benefits and limitations of drug testing • The purpose is to make the athlete feel at constant risk of being tested and hence avoid taking any banned drugs. • However, some athletes will try to beat the testing. • Some athletes may try to predict when a drug test will occur and prepare for it by cycling their drug taking or attempt to neutralise the effects of testing for drugs and/or masking agents.
