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Chapter 8

Chapter 8. Statement-Level Control Structures. Chapter 8 Topics. Introduction Selection Statements Iterative Statements Unconditional Branching Guarded Commands Conclusions. Levels of Control Flow. Within expressions Among program statements Among program units.

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Chapter 8

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  1. Chapter 8 Statement-Level Control Structures

  2. Chapter 8 Topics Introduction Selection Statements Iterative Statements Unconditional Branching Guarded Commands Conclusions

  3. Levels of Control Flow Within expressions Among program statements Among program units

  4. Control StatementsEvolution • FORTRAN I control statements were based directly on IBM 704 hardware • Much research and argument in the 1960s about the issue • One important result: It was proven that all algorithms represented by flowcharts can be coded with only two-way selection and pretest logical loops

  5. Introduction Control Statements Selection among several alternative control flow paths Repeated execution of collections of statements Overall Design Issue What control statements should a language have, beyond selection and pretest logical loops?

  6. Introduction Definition: A control structure is a control statement and the statements whose execution it controls • Categories of Control Structures • Compound statements • Selection statements • Iteration statements • Unconditional branching

  7. Compound Statements Definition: A block is a compound statement, including data declarations, defining a new scope Some languages have specially delimited compound statements: begin ...end { ... } Some control constructs have built-in delimiters: repeat ...until Python uses indentation!

  8. Selection Statements • A selection statement provides the means of choosing between two or more paths of execution • Two general categories: • Two-way selectors • Multiple-way selectors

  9. Selection Statements Two-Way Selection Statements Design Issues The Control Expression Clause Form Nesting Selectors Multiple Selection Constructs Design Issues Examples of Multiple Selectors Multiple Selection Using if

  10. Two-Way Selection • General form: if <control_expression> then <then_clause> else <else_clause> • Design Issues: • What is the form and type of the control expression? • How are the then and else clauses specified? • How should the meaning of nested selectors be specified?

  11. Two-Way Selection • Design Issues • What is the form and type of the control expression? • How are the then and else clauses specified? • How should the meaning of nested selectors be specified? • Control Expressions • Syntax: Parentheses? • Data type?

  12. Two-Way Selection Clause Form Single statements or compound statements? Single statement example: (FORTRAN) IF (<boolean_expr>) statement IF (.NOT.<condition>) GOTO 20 ... 20 CONTINUE Compound statementexample: (ALGOL 60) if (<boolean_expr>) then <statement> else <statement>

  13. Two-Way Selection Nested Selectors Example (Java) if ... if ... ... else ... Which if gets the else? Java's static semantics rule: else goes with the nearest if

  14. Two-Way Selection Nested Selectors Fortran 95, Ada – closing special words Examples (Ada) if ... then if ... then if ... then if ... then ...... else end if ... else end if ... end if end if Advantages: flexibility and readability Modula-2 uses the same closing special word for all control structures: END This results in poor readability

  15. Multiple Selection Design Issues 1. What is the form and type of the control expression? 2. How are the selectable segments specified? 3. Is execution flow through the structure restricted to include just a single selectable segment? 4. How should unrepresented selector expression values be handled, if at all? These questions are answered for each example

  16. Multiple Selection Early Multiple Selectors FORTRAN arithmetic IF (a three-way selector) IF (<arithmetic-expression>) 10,20,30 10 ... ... GO TO 40 20 ... ... GO TO 40 30 ... ... 40 ...

  17. Modern Multiple Selectors Pascal case case <expression> of <constant_list_1> : <statement_1>; ... <constant_list_n> : <statement_n> end Design choices 1. <expression> is any ordinal type int, boolean, char, enum 2. <statement_i> can be either single or compound 3. Only one segment can be executed per construct execution 4. Unrepresented <expression> not defined

  18. Modern Multiple Selectors The C Langaugesswitch switch (<expression>) { case <const_expr_1> : <statement_1>; ... case <const_expr_n> : <statement_n>; [default: <statement_n+1>] } Design Choices 1. <expression> can be an integer type only 2. <statement_i> can be sequences 3. Many segments can be executed in one construct execution 4. Thedefault clause is for unrepresented values (without it, the whole statement may do nothing)

  19. Modern Multiple SelectorsThe Adacase statement case <expression> is when <choice list> => <stmt_sequence>; … when <choice list> => <stmt_sequence>; when others => <stmt_sequence>;] end case; More reliable than C’s switch Once a <stmt_sequence> execution is completed, control is passed to the first statement after the casestatement

  20. Multiple Selection Multiple Selection Using if Some languages specifically extend the if statement, allowing some of the special words to be left out else-if sequences are replaced with a single special word elsif and the closing special word on the nested if is dropped Ada if Count < 10 then Bag1 := True; elsif Count < 100 then Bag2 := True; elsif Count < 1000 then Bag3 := True; end if; This is not easily modeled with a case statement, since each selector is a Boolean expression

  21. Iterative Statements • Counter-Controlled Loops • Design Issues • Fortran 95Do • Adafor • Clanguagesfor • Logically Controlled Loops • Design Issues • Examples • User-Located Loop Control Mechanisms • Iteration Based on Data Structures

  22. Iterative Statements Repeated execution of a statement or compound statement can be accomplished either by iteration or recursion Here we look at iteration -- recursion is unit-level control General Design Issues for Iteration Control Statements How is iteration controlled? Where is the control mechanism in the loop?

  23. Counter-Controlled Loops Design Issues 1. What are the type and scope of the loop variable? 2. What is the value of the loop variable at loop termination? 3. Should it be legal for the loop variable or loop parameters to be changed in the loop body, and if so, does the change affect loop control? 4. Should the loop parameters be evaluated only once, or once for every iteration? These questions are answered for each example

  24. Counter-Controlled Loops Fortran 95 Do <label> <var>=<start>,<finish>[,<stepsize>] [<name>:] Do<var>=<start>,<finish>[,<stepsize>]... End Do[<name>] Design Choices 1. <var> must be Integer 2. After execution, <var> has its last value 3. <var> cannot be changed in the loop 4. Loop parameters can be changed in the loop Notes: - Cannot branch into either Do - <stepsize> can be any value but zero - Loop parameters can be expressions

  25. Counter-Controlled Loops Ada for <var> in [reverse]<discrete_range> loop ... end loop Design Choices 1. Type of <var> is that of <discrete_range>; its scope is the loop body 2. <var>does not exist outside the loop 3. <var> cannot be changed in the loop, <discrete_range> can be changed in the loop 4. <discrete_range> is evaluated only once, so changing it does not affect loop control Note: Cannot branch into the loop body

  26. Counter-Controlled Loops C Languages for ([<exp1>];[<exp2>];[<exp3>])<statement> Design Choices 1. There is no explicit loop variable 2. The loop variable (if there is one) has its latest value 3. Everything can be changed in the loop 4. <exp1> is evaluated once, but the other two are evaluated with each iteration Notes: - The expressions can be statements or statement sequences for (i=0,j=10;j==i;i++)... - If the second expression is absent, it is an infinite loop

  27. Counter-Controlled Loops • The loop statement of the C languages is the most flexible, but there are differences mostly based on the while loop • C99,C++for: • The control expression is coercised Boolean • The initial expression can include variable definitions (scope is from the definition to the end of the loop body) • Can branch into them • Java,C#for: • The control expression must be Boolean • Branching into the loop? Java no • C# yes

  28. Logically-Controlled Loops Design Issues • Should the language have a pretest loop or a posttest loop or both? • Should this be a special case of the counter-controlled loop or a completely separate statement?

  29. Logically-Controlled Loops Language Examples C Languages have both while-do and do-while Branching into either loop construct? C,C++,C# yes Java no Ada has a pretest version, but no posttest Fortran 95 has neither Perl has two pretest logical loops, while and until, but no posttest logical loop

  30. User-Located Loop Controls Design Issues • Should the conditional be part of the exit? • Should control be transferable, conditionally or unconditionally, out of more than one nested loop?

  31. User-Located Loop Controls Language Examples Ada conditional or unconditional, for any loop, any number of levels for ... loop ... exit [when ...] ... end loop LOOP1: while ... loop ... LOOP2: for ... loop ... exit LOOP1 [when ...] ... end loop LOOP2; ... end loop LOOP1;

  32. User-Located Loop Controls Language Examples C Languages break Unconditional, for any loop or switch C,C++ one level only Java,Perl,C# multiple levels, by labels continue Skips the remainder of this iteration, but does not exit the loop Fortran 95 Exit, Cycle Unconditional for any loop, any number of levels

  33. Data Structure Iteration Concept Use the order and number of elements of some data structure to control iteration Control Mechanism A function call (the iterator) that returns either the next element in a chosen order, if there is one, or else exits the loop Languages Specific structures: Perl, PHP, JavaScript, C# Can be modeled in most languages by functions, easily so in object-oriented languages

  34. Data Structure Iteration Examples C,C++ traversing a linked list using pointers for (p=hdr; p; p=next(p)){...} C# String[] strList = {″Bob″,″Carol″, ...}; ... foreach (String name in strList) System.Console.WriteLine(″Name: {0}″,name); The foreach statement iterates the elements of any collection that implements IEnumerable

  35. Data Structure Iteration Examples Perl has a built-in iterator for arrays and hashes foreach $name (@names) { print $name } PHP has predefined iterators to access its arrays current points at one element of the array next moves current to the next element prev moves current to the previous element reset moves current to the first element

  36. Data Structure Iteration User-defined Iteration C++ iterators are often implemented as friend functions or as separate iterator classes Java objects of a class implementing the Collection interface can be iterated with an implementation of the Iterator interface - next() moves the pointer into the collection - hasNext() is a predicate - remove() deletes an element C# can iterate any collection implementing the IEnumerate interface - MoveNext() moves the pointer in the collection - Reset() moves the pointer to the beginning - Current is the current element - Can also use foreach to iterate

  37. Unconditional Branching General Syntax goto <Label> Disadvantage readability Advantage flexibility Notes: All control structures can be built with goto and a selector Some languages do not have them Modula-2, Java Loop exit statements are camouflaged goto’s - they are severelyrestricted - not harmful to readability

  38. “Go To Statement Considered Harmful” ...the quality of programmers is a decreasing function of the density of go to statements in the programs they produce.... ...the go to statement should be abolished from all "higher level" programming languages... The go to statement as it stands is just too primitive; it is too much an invitation to make a mess of one's program.... Dijkstra, Edsger W., Go To Statement Considered Harmful. Communications of the ACM, Vol. 11, No. 3, March 1968, pp. 147-148.

  39. “Go To Statement Considered Harmful” Dijkstra’s remark about the undesirability of the goto statement was not new, and was not final ! 1959 Heinz Zemanek expressed doubts 1966 Wirth and Hoare “[multiple selection] mirrors the dynamic structure of a program more clearly than goto statements" 1966 Guiseppe Jacopini proved the (logical) superfluousness of the goto statement 1968 Dijkstra Communications of the ACM 1974 Knuthargued that there were occasions when the efficiency of the goto outweighed its harm to readability 1978 Kernighan and Ritchiecalled the goto “inifinitely abusable,” but included it in C anyway

  40. 'GOTO Considered Harmful' Considered Harmful In computing and related disciplines, considered harmfulis a phrase used in the titles of diatribes and other critical essays (there are more than 65 such works). The March 1987 CACM contained a criticism of Dijkstra's letter under the title 'GOTO Considered Harmful' Considered Harmful. The May 1987 CACM printed further replies, both for and against, under the title '"GOTO Considered Harmful" Considered Harmful' Considered Harmful?. Dijkstra's own response to this controversy was titled On a somewhat disappointing correspondence.

  41. http://www.considered-harmful.org/

  42. Guarded Commands Edsger Dijkstra (1975, 1976) Purpose to support a new programming methodology (verification during program development) Idea if the order of evaluation is not important, the program should not specify one Used in concurrent programming: CSP, Ada Used in function definitions: Haskell

  43. Guarded Commands Selection • Syntax:if <boolean> -> <statement> • [] <boolean> -> <statement> • ... • [] <boolean> -> <statement> • fi • []is called a fatbar • Semantics: When this construct is reached: • Evaluate all boolean expressions • If more than one are true, • choose one nondeterministically • If none are true, runtime error

  44. Selection Guarded CommandFlow Chart

  45. Guarded Commands Selection examples (text pp. 367-368) if i = 0 -> sum := sum + i [] i > j -> sum := sum + j [] j > i -> sum := sum + i fi if x >= y -> max := x [] y>= x -> max := y fi

  46. Guarded Commands Loop • Syntax: do <boolean> -> <statement> • [ ] <boolean> -> <statement> • ... • [ ] <boolean> -> <statement> • od • Semantics: For each iteration: • Evaluate all boolean expressions • If more than one are true, • choose one nondeterministically; • then start loop again • If none are true, exit loop

  47. Loop Guarded CommandFlow Chart

  48. Guarded Commands Loop example (text p. 369) arrange the values of q1, q2, q3, and q4 so that q1 <= q2 <= q3 <= q4 do q1 > q2 -> temp := q1; q1 := q2; q2 := temp [] q2 > q3 -> temp := q2; q2 := q3; q3 := temp [] q3 > q4 -> temp := q3; q3 := q4; q3 := temp od

  49. Guarded CommandsRationale Connection between control statements and program verification is intimate • Verification is impossible with goto statements • Verification is possible with only selection and logical pretest loops • Verification is relatively simple with only guarded commands

  50. Conclusions Choice of control statements beyond selection and logical pretest loops is a trade-off between language size and writability

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