Who am I? Opportunity, choice, socialization and transition

1. Who am I?Opportunity, choice, socialization and transition Kate Mackenzie Davey, Birkbeck, University of London k.mackenzie-davey@bbk.ac.uk

2. Identity and work • How did I come to be in this job? • How was I socialised into this occupation? • How is my work viewed by others? • Where do I go from here?

3. Self concepts and occupations • Vocation: Identification with a specific occupation • Experience: knowledge or awareness of occupations, possibly by chance • Rational decision making: awareness of possession of appropriate assets: • Both developmental and differential • Implement self concept • Development and choice combined in career adaptability (Savickas, 2005)

4. Rational occupational choice • Person-environment fit (Parsons, 1909) • People are different • Jobs are different • By studying both we can get a good match between the two • Two groups of attributes • Rewards sought and satisfaction offered • Individual ability and job demands • Evidence suggests better fit leads to higher well being (Tinsley, 2000) • However, not all careers are equally rewarding or desirable

5. Influence of early socialization • Socialised early within family • self concept, identity • expectations, feedback, support, modelling, information • Opportunity structure limits occupational choice • Structural and social class influences(Roberts, 1977) • Need to acknowledge both psychological, cultural and structural forces • Occupation choice embedded in social context and individual identity: reinforcing

6. Joining work:Initial preparation and encounter • Socialization (Willis, 1977) • Contract negotiation (Herriot, 1987) • Climate of mutual selling (Schein, 1978) • Realistic previews (Wanous, 1977) • Reality shock (Hughes, 1958) • Change, contrast, surprise (Louis, 1981) Initial work socialization is influential. How far does this apply to job change?

7. Work Socialization tactics Which of these apply to Medical training? • Collective or individual • Formal or informal • Sequential or random • Fixed or variable • Serial or disjunctive • Investiture or divestiture

8. Institutionalised or individualised socialization? Institutionalised leads to • Passive acceptance of pre-set roles • Reproduces the status quo • Reduces uncertainty • Reduced role ambiguity • Reduced role conflict • Lower intention to quit • Increased fit to job and organization • Increased job satisfaction, commitment, performance • Custodial approach to role • Reduced innovation How to maintain security and increase innovation? (Jones, 1986, Saks et al 2007)

9. Psychological contract • “an employee’s subjective understanding of promissory-based reciprocal exchanges between him and herself and the organization” (Conway & Briner, 2005, p.35) • Negotiations of development in exchange for capability, loyalty and flexibility (Rousseau, 1995; Herriot & Pemberton, 1996)

10. Types of contract • Relational • Transactional • Hybrid or balanced: (Dabos & Rousseau, 2004) • Idiosyncratic (I-deals) (Greenberg, Roberge, Ho & Rousseau, 2004) • Issues of fulfillment, breach and violation • Tendency for employers to offer transaction and expect relational (Ho, Ang & Straub, 2003)

11. Desirable aspects of work environments • Environmental clarity and feedback • Variety • Level of pay • Job security • Externally generated goals • Interpersonal contact • Opportunity for skill use • Opportunity for control • Valued social position • How does being a doctor score here? Relative to what?

12. Career anchors(Schein, 1978) • Self perceived • Talents and abilities • Motives and needs • Attitudes and values • Developed through early interactions in work • Constrain career decisions Technical-functional competence, Managerial competence Autonomy/independence Security/stability Entrepreneurial creativity Service/dedication Pure challenge Lifestyle

13. Continuity and change Focus on stability and continuity • Links to maintaining identity and stable self concept (Sugarman, 2001) • External continuity: familiar environment, activity, people. Pressure to maintain career and construct cv accordingly • Internal continuity: maintenance of sense of identity: our awareness of consistent structure of ‘ideas, temperament, affect, experiences, preferences, dispositions, skills(Atchley,1989) • Career embeddedness(Cooper & Mackenzie Davey, 2011) Change seen as • Positive development or growth • Response to changing context • in line with capacity to cope (Atchley,1989) or as threatening • Emplotment (Cochran, 1997)“a comforting story we tell ourselves”Nicholson & West (1988)

14. Career wellbeing • Career mobility but not job loss, poor adjustment • Relationships: feedback, support, recognition • Autonomy and power • Effective performance and challenge, not boredom • Sense of purpose • Developing or prospect of new skills • Work life issues (see Gibson & Borges 2009; Hoff et al 2002,on physicians) • Career success Subjective and objective (Ng, Eby et al, 2005) How does your job score? Why change?

15. Changes • Ambition, need for achievement or challenge • Individual growth and development (or avoiding boredom, plateau) • Social timetable: Convention of career ladder • Organizational or occupational change • Social trends • Quality of life • Managing dual careers/caring for family • Migration • Employability

16. Development and attitudes • “… satisfaction with development and career management reduces turnover and promotes loyalty and commitment towards the employing organization (Arnold & Mackenzie Davey, 1999; Sturges & Guest, 2001)” Zaleska & de Menezes 2007:1007 • Organizational commitment: Job challenge, self motivation, internal training, coaching not secondments and external training? but changing over time • Dissatisfaction: Job insecurity lack of career prospects • Organizations not offering cross functional, inter-organizational opportunities or employability • Job challenge

17. Changes in organizations, in careers and in public policy • Delayering –downsizing • Devolution- decentralizing • Outsourcing • Competencies • Diversity • Psychological contracts • Multiskilling and flexibility • Boundaryless- new boundaries • Unemployment, education, legislation…

18. Boundaryless careers • “A range of possible forms that defies traditional employment assumptions” (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996:3) • Portable skills and marketability • Job rotation, networking • Self management, entrepreneurial • Developmental not vertical • Mobile, flexible • Shift in commitment? (Sparrow, 1996; Hechsler) • Involuntary • New boundaries? (King et al)

19. Work role transitions • Any move into and/or out of a job, any move between jobs, or any major alteration in the content of work duties and activities (Nicholson & West, 1988)

20. Transition stages Hayes et al 1976 • Immobilisation • Minimization • Depression • Letting go • Testing • Searching • Internalization This is based on studies of bereavement. Is it appropriate for all work transitions?

21. Transition cycle (Nicholson 1987)

22. Transition cycleNicholson 1987 • Preparation • Self appraisal, make contact, Realistic preview • Problem: unrealistic expectations, fear • Encounter: • Coping, sensemaking, • Problems: shock, regret, rejection • Adjustment: • personal change, role innovation, developing relationships • Problem: misfit • Stabilization: • Commitment, effectiveness • Boredom, stagnation, plateau

23. Identity transitions • Maintaining stability while negotiating change. • From a to A • from A to B • From A to z • From A to Ab • Or even from A to a • Risks of changes from • Role ambiguity • Role overload • Role conflict

24. Your transitions • Identify the key transitions you have experienced. To what extent • Did you change the tasks? • Did you change the role? • Did you change or develop? • Identify transitions you are likely to encounter in your future careers. • What challenges do you anticipate? • What support is available • From the organization • Elsewhere