Why was Russia Backwards?

1. Why was Russia Backwards? • Political • Autocracy • No opposition/ other political parties • Nobles in control • Secret police (Okhrana) • Conscripted Army • Economic • Harsh winter – affected farming • Backwards farming methods • Banking undeveloped • No consumer demand for products • Poor communications • Social • Over 80% of 130million population were peasants. “dark masses” • Only 800,000 industrial workers • No demand to develop • Social hierarchy • Mostly of Russian Orthodox religion • 3500 people in 6 universities Keywords Zemstva: Elected local councils (power was limited) Mir: the traditional village community Intelligentsia: Educated members of Russian society who wanted to see the country reform along western lines Autocracy: The absolute rule of one person. The Tsar • Other Factors • Climate – frozen lakes, hard to import and trade on • Size of Russia – Extremely hard due to the poor communications (over 8milliom sq miles)

2. Nicholas II’s personal issues • Pobedonostsev: Nicholas was tutored by this man. Known as the “Great Inquisitor” because of his repressive attitudes. He had a deep hatred for liberalism and democracy. Believed in Programs and that the “dark masses” should not be allowed to vote as they were too uneducated and vulgar. He said representative government was the “great lie of our time” • Easily Manipulated and Swayed: Especially by his wife Alixandra and Pobedonostsev later on Rasputin • Lacked Imagination: Many of his policies were just a continuation or modification of older ones introduced by his father Alexander III. • Ministers: He mistrusted most of his ministers and yet was incapable of carrying out the task of ruling the vast Russian empire alone. Remember! The Tsar only wanted to modernise to gave it a strong military force!! 1885 onwards – 50% of government spending on military • Key Developments • Private Enterprise • State Capitalism

3. Witte impacts: Good & Bad • Good • Annual production (millions of tons) • Urbanisation – working classes reached aprox. 11 million • Growth of railways by 230% in 30 years • Russia became the 4th largest economy • In 1900 – economy expanding at 8% per annum • Bad • No doubt his policies were good, but did have drawbacks • Made Russia too dependant of foreign loans • Neglected areas such as light engineering • Paid no attention to agriculture • Growth figures are not as impressive as their was a huge increase in population at the time However! His freedom of polices were restricted and he often was told to focus more on military. Witte was disliked by the royal court and therefore not trusted. This meant the very system he was trying to protect restricted him despite his ability. Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 • Outcome • Russia lost, but why? • Russia's Weakness • Military poorly equipped • Logistic problems in running a war from 6000 miles away • Commanders using 19th century tactics (bayonet charges) • Underestimated Japs • Japans Strength • Under Maji emperors Japan had rapidly modernized • Better equipped & prepared • Causes • Territorial disputes • Minster or war belied Nicholas wanted to expand empire into Asia further. (Nicholas cousins Kaiser Wilhelm once called Nic the Admiral of the pacific) • Witte wanted to expand economy into the far east • Obtain an ice free port • Distract from domestic issues (Plehve said “a little victories war to stem revolution) • View of Japanese • Saw them as an inferior nation and was very racist towards it. Referred to as “yellow danger, the new hordes of Mongols with modern tec” • Russia turned it into a patriotic struggle. War was nothing less than the defence of Russia’s European identity against the Asian hordes. Russian fleet destroyed at Tsushima , may 1905 (after sailing for 8 months to get their was sunk immediately Port Arthur fell in Jan 1905 • Effect • National humiliation • Showed incompetence of government • Excited the unrest in the country (this shown by the assassination of Plehve in 1904, in Warsaw this was celebrated by crowds in the streets) Russian surrender of Mukden in Feb 1905

4. Bloody Sunday (22nd January 1905) Disorder spreads • Because of Russo-Japanese war, Bloody Sunday and all other Russia's problems • Strikes in all major settlements • Terrorism against goverment and landlords (Plehve killed) • Public buildings attacked • large private estates attacked • land and property seized by peasants • Georgia declared itself an independent state • Jews demanded equal rights • Union of Unions formed (called goverment “gang of robbers”) Aim Father Gapon led a peaceful march of workers and their families to the winter palace to present a petition to the Tsar, begging him to improve conditions • However • The march caused the police force to panic and they fired on the marchers and charged down by the cavalry! • Approximately 200 dead Reasons for 1905 Rising Governments own responsibility Repression Taxation leadership Social unrest – Economic recession – Bad harvests Peasants anger over mortgage repayments Workers anger over unemployment and falling wages Russia’s humiliation to Japan Potemkin Mutiny June 1905 Throughout 1905 had been instances of troops refusing to fire/disperse on unarmed peasants Crew of the Battle ship Prince Potemkin mutinied at sea. This was over the bad food and water they were given. Crew took over the ship from the officers and sailed to Odessa Their was serious anti-goverment strikes in Odessa and the crew were greaten as Heroes. Troops were sent in. Marched though with bayonets, trampling over people and driving many into the sea. 1000s dead! Very worrying for the goverment as a goverment that cannot rely on the loyalty of its armed forces is in a very vulnerable position. Witte feared troops returning form Russo-Japanese war would join the revolution. If this happened, he said “then everything would collapse”

5. 1905 Impacts (What it showed) 1905 showed that as long as the Tsarist goverment kept its nerve and the army loyal, the forces of protest would find it hand to mount a serious challenge Liberals Few Liberals enjoyed co-operating with the workers. Many were frightened by the primitive forces (dark masses). Liberals betrayed workers and backed out of the revolution, leaving them to be crushed by the troops. Tsardom Tsardom emerged stronger than it had entered 1905. with the loyal support of its armies. Trotsky said about the Tsarist system: "although with a few broken rips, had come out of the experience of 1905 alive and strong” Fundamental Laws April 1906 Despite the concessions the Tsars power was not limited. The Duma was not a limitation of the Tsars autocratic power. This was made clear by the Fundamental Laws. A quote: “No law can come into law with his(Tsars) approval” Stolypin and the land reform 1906-1911 How to feed Russia's growing population? Rural Crisis The problem of land shortages and overpopulation of the countryside caused by rapid population growth. Bad harvests in 1890s led to famine in 1891 and 1897. “De-Revolutionising” the peasants High price of land led to high mortgage (redemption) payments. One of the reasons that peasant joined the 1905 revolution is the fear that government would reposes land. In 1905 government cleared this debt to “de-revolutionise” the peasants • Wager on the strong (1906-07) • Stolypin introduced measure to restore peasants sense of security. His aim was to create a layer of prosperous, productive peasants. Whose new wealth would turn them into a Tsarist supporter • Farmers urged to abolish strip system with fenced fields • A Land Bank established, to allow a independent peasant to buy his own land Did it work? Stolypin had little chance of success as Russian peasantry was so backwards and he had so little time to change things. Conservatism (suspicion of change, therefore resistance to it) of most peasants prevented change occurring. Also Stolypin admitted he needed 20 years to achieve success. He was assassinated in 1911 and therefore only got 5,

6. Before first Duma met the Tsar • Loaned from France to restrict Dumas financial control • Issued Fundamental laws • Made Duma “Bi-Cameral” (this split the Duma in two, one chamber elected, another (with right to Veto) were appointed by Tsar) Result: Dumas had no real power, Tsarist regime no intentions of allowing concessions it had made in 1905 Dumas 1906-1914 The Vyborg Appeal • After the first Duma was dissolved the frustration led to 200 Kadet and Labourists deputies to reassemble in Finland. Here they drew up the “appeal” urging Russia's people to defy Russia's government by... • Refusing to pay taxes • Disobeying conscription orders • However Russians did not conduct widespread passive disobedience, but scattered violence occurred. • Reaction by Government: violence gave government the excuse for retaliation. Stolypin appointed by Tsar as strongman. Vyborg deputies arrested and banned for re-election into Duma. • This led to Stolypins policy of repression. • Martial Law proclaimed • Military courts opened and used to quell disturbances • between 1906-1911, 2500 people were executed • Hangman's Noose renamed the “Stolypin Necktie” Liberals never recovered from humiliation. Which allowed left and right parties to think reform could only be achieved though revolution Growing tensions in Russia, 1911-14 • Following Stolypin’s assassination in 1911, the various ministers appointed by the Tsar were all incompetent. And just enforced further repression. Terror was used to programs returned to province • From 1911 to 1914 strikes rose from 24 to 2400 • 17000 acts of terrorism (although a lot not political, just mindless) The Lena Goldfields Incident, 1912 Demands from miners in the Lena Goldfields, Siberia, for better pay and better conditions led to the employers appealing to the police. When the police moved in the Miners closed ranks and situation worsened. Resulted in troops firing on miners and killing large numbers Anger among the Moderates (Tsars supporters) In 1913 the Octoberist leader told his party that their aim for “a peaceful, painless transition from the old condemned system to a new order” Had failed. This shows even the Tsars supporters were starting to turn against him due to his governments incompetence to deal with problems Russia's faced. Government remained hostile towards reform, not only economic change needed, but also political, which government was not willing to accept, instead just repressed. After Witte and Stolypin that “might” have saved Tsarism were either ignored or killed Tsarism was doomed.

7. Russia's entry into the War First Months of WW1 • Patriotism and unity • Nicholas II became the symbol of nations resistance • French ambassador said about the Tsar “the absolute master of their bodies and souls” shows level of support at start of War. • Special Duma session all the deputies pledged themselves to the national struggle • all political pressure disappeared as parties jointed the national struggle • Russia's concerns • Growth of United Germany • Formation of Austria-Hungary • Russia saw itself as protector of Slav culture (Balkans, Serbia) • Austro-Hungary& Russia fighting over Balkans (Serbia) On 28 June 1914 Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated by Serbians who wanted to break away from Austro- Hungarian influences. Russia mobilised in order to scare of Austria-Hungary (realistic chance) however Germans plan was a lighting quick attack so it mobilised as well (Schrieffer Plan) and declared war on Russia on August the 1st. In July 1914 Nic II sent telegrams to his cousin Kaiser William II regretting the growing crisis between the countries. These are called “Willy-Nicky” exchanges Bolsheviks They were against the war so classed as traitors or German spies. Everyone went into hiding. Germany and Austria-Hungary VS. Russia, Britain And France Impacts of WW1 on Russia (1) Impacts of WW1 on Russia (2) Three years of total war proved too much for Russia and it became crippled economically • The Army • Russian army was very strong because of its size, however its crippling weakness was that it was lack of equipment. • Role of the Tsar • Nicholas being Commander-An-Chief made the survival of Tsardom dependant on Military success • Morale • After 1914 spike in moral it sunk rapidly and people became very pessimistic • Inflation • Value of money sharply declined, creating instability and high prices • Food Supplies • Dwindled as a result of requisitioning and transport disruption – urban areas suffered shortages • Transport • Broke down under stresses of Total War • Why Morale was low: • Suffering from food shortages • Collapsed transport system • Poor leadership by Nicholas • Large Casualty list from war • Problem: • Lack of equipment. This was not caused by lack of resources but by poor administration. Transport chaos also effected the army and meant it was often under supplied. Government departments for supplies didn't work well together • Troops even fought bare footed because of lack of boots. Problem: between 1914 & 1917 government spending rose from 4 million roubles to 30 million. • Problems in 1916/17: • Signalling system on which train network relied broke • blocked lines and trains stranded by engine issues were common • 575 stations were no longer capable of handling freight Problem: Nic II became commander-In-Chief in order to rally the nation around him. But this made him personally responsible for the war effort. • Problems: • Requisitioning of horses and fertiliser, lowered production • Inflation made trading unprofitable so peasants stopped selling food. • Army had first claim to food • Army priority of transport systems meant food supplies didn't get where they were needed, the cities • Petrograd suffered badly during war, residents easting a quarter of their 1914 diets • Solution • Increased Taxes as home • Heavy borrowing • Abandoned gold standard, thus allowing quantitative easing • Implication: • Some soldiers deserted (but so did other countries?) • growth of opposition to Tsardom • Implications of this: • Food rotted in stranded trains • Pile up of supplies at Archangel port that goods sunk into the ground under the weight of newer goods placed on top. • Before war Moscow received 2200 wagons of grain per months, was 700 in February 1917 • Lack of food in Urban areas • Military shortages of equipment Implication: Nicholas II had to take the blame for Russia's poor war performance, he could no longer blame his other men. However this made money worthless. Serve Inflation followed. Wages doubled, but price of food and food quadrupled Implication: Russian army was being beaten and were losing the war.

8. Growth of Opposition to Tsardom Rasputin Brought it to heal Nic’s son. Became Alexandra’s confidant whilst Tsar was away. “The German woman” and a “mad monk” effectively ran the country. The fact that Rasputin became so prominent with the Tsarist system convinced many the system wasn't worth saving. February revolution 1917 (events) Duma Recalled In August 1914 Duma voted to be suppressed for duration of the war, this was sign of total support for the Tsar. By 1915 Duma demanded to be recalled as a result of Russia's poor military showing. “Progressive Bloc” Dumas deputies tried to pursued Nic to replace his shit cabinet with Duma members. Nic Rejected Denied a direct voice in national policies over half of Duma members formed a “Progressive Bloc “within Duma. Bloc was a supporter of the Tsar trying to persuade him to make concessions. But his unwillingness to co-operate made the Bloc a focal point of political resistance. February revolution 1917 (Character) Soviets 27th February. First meeting of Petrograd Soviets. Represented sailors, soldiers and workers. Formed the Dual Authority with PG From 27th the Soviets and PC became the De Facto government of Russia (De facto means to denote the real situation, even though technically not correct)

9. Dual Authority Bolsheviks Return All the Bolsheviks came out of exile when they learned of Tsar abdication But their was two views on what they should do... Initial Balance Provisional Government Petrograd Soviet Considerable cross-over and jointed membership Lenin: Revolution Before returning his “letters for afar”urged WW1 should be turned into a class war with all armies turning on their governments. On the third of April he arrived in Petrograd and gave a speech. He declared the Feb Revolution had created a ”parliamentary- bourgeois republic” “Old Duma in a new form” he called for a genuine revolution. Stalin & Kamenev: Accommodationism These two believed in Accommodationism, this is the idea that Bolsheviks should accept the situation that followed the February Revolution and co-operate with the PG and other parties “Soviet order number 1” gave the Soviet effective veto over the government But considerable cooperation in the early months after Romanov fall • This enabled the PG to achieve a number of progressive reforms such as • Full civil and religious freedoms • Trade unions legally recognised • The April Theses • Issued on the 4th of April this set out future Bolshevik Policy • He condemned Accommodationsim and all that had happened since the Feb Rev. He instead the Bolsheviks were the only truly revolutionary party and they must; • Abandon all co-operation with other parties • Work for a true revolution • Overthrow the PG • Pass power to the workers • demand authority pass to the soviets • Lenin created two slogans to some up his aims • “Peace, bread and land” • “All power to the Soviets” • The first highlighted the problems in Russia, that could not be solved by the PG because they were only interested in their own classes affairs. That's why he wanted to sweep ministers aside with a completely new class of people, hence the second slogan.

10. Kerensky Kerensky offensive This was a major offensive in June. Low morale which was made worse by Bolsheviks agitators meant it was a massive failure. Whole regiments mutinied or deserted. Kornilov called for the PG to stop offensive and focus on crushing the “Political Subversives” at home. This appeal was taken up by PG and Lvov stood down. Kerensky became prime minster with Kornilov Commander-In- Chief The Land Question The Kornilov Affair Kornilov the commander in chief, believed before Russia could defeat Germany it had to destroy the socialist enemies within. He said “Its time to hang the German supporters and spies, with Lenin at their head, and to disperse the Soviet” Governments Side Did not redistribute land, this led to peasants seizing property of local landlords, this happened throughout 1917. can be called a National peasants revolt. Majority of PG’s members came from landowning classes, so they didn't want to threaten their own position. Bolshevik Adaptability As they were a party for the workers they didn't have a land policy. However Lenin adjusted. He knew it was impossible to ignore the problem that angered 4/5 of the population. Lenin asserted that the peasants were acting as a revolutionary force. Thus allowing them to be classed as part of the proletarian. Lenin then stole SR’s land policy and all this caused a swing for the Bolsheviks in the countryside. Disorder Large number of refugees flooded into Petrograd spreading disorder. Kornilov feared that Russia was on the edge of anarchy. He told Kerensky that he would bring his loyal troops to Petrograd to save the PG. (perform Coup) Response Kerensky publicly condemned Kornilov and ordered him to surrender his post, he placed Petrograd under Marital law for its protection. Kerensky called on loyal citizens to take up arms and defend the city. Weapons were given to anyone who was willing to fight. Kornilov stopped by Railway workers on 1st September • Bolsheviks • Were given weapons by the very government they were trying to overthrow. • Many released from prison • Gained popularity as seen as defenders of the city • showed PG weakness to Coup

11. October Revolution (1): Soviet role October Revolution (4): Power “All power to the Soviets”. Lenin said this in the April theses because he saw the Soviets as power base that could give his small party the power in which to take over. The Bolsheviks did not seize power; it fell into their hands. On the 27th of October Lenin said “from being on the run to supreme power makes one dizzy” The next day at the All-Russian Congress of Soviets it was announced that the Soviets had seized power. A list of 14 names were read out of the new government, all were Bolsheviks or left SR’s. Mensheviks and others walked out saying it was not the Soviets who had taken power, but a Bolsheviks military Coup. They were right... Bolshevik Majority By middle of September the Bolsheviks had a majority in both the Moscow and Petrograd Soviet. However this was only because attendance had dropped massively meaning it was easier for Bolsheviks to influence Soviet. Trotsky Elected chairman of the Petrograd Soviet in Sept. On 9th October the Soviet set up the Military Revolution Committee (MRC) in order to protect the city against another Kornilov. Trotsky was on the Troikameaning he had control of the only effective fighting force in Petrograd. October Revolution (2): Lenin October Revolution (3): Course of events • Urgency • “History will not forgive us if we do not assume power” • Lenin wanted to overthrow the PG when it was at it weakest point, he was concerned about two events that were taking place in the Autumn. • the meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviet in late October • the election of the Constituent Assembly in November • The “Pre Parliament” • Kerensky created this as body to fill in before the Constituent assembly, was a body of a variety of parties to advise the government. Lenin instructed his Bolsheviks to condemn the Pre- Parliament then walk out. • Return • Lenin returned to Petrograd from Finland on the 7th October and spent the next two weeks convincing all the Bolsheviks that the time was right for revolution. Leaked Kamenev and Zinoviev (both on the central committee) wrote in an article that they felt it would a mistake to overthrow the PG at present circumstances. Kerensky acted first and ordered an attack on the Bolsheviks, on 23rd October Pravda was shut down. Attempts were made to round up Bolsheviks by PG troops. In response Lenin ordered Coup to begin and Trotsky directed Red Guards and MRC to seize key locations over Petrograd (bridges, telegraph offices) Fighting In the three days (25th-27th) that it took for Bolsheviks to take control only 6 men died, all Red Guards. The PG had hardly any military force, the ones it did have were not willing to fight a futile struggle so surrendered.

12. October revolution: Weakness Vs. Strength • Strength of Bolsheviks • MRC; Trotsky said their control of this gave them “Three Quarters” of their victory. • Ruthless and hugely dedicated to the revolution. • Absence of challenge from the other parties • Lenin’s leadership • Trotsky's organisation skills • Weakness of PG • Wasn't elected therefore lacked mandate to rule, would only be judge on its dealing with Russia's problems • Authority limited by “Dual Authority” with soviets • No military support in October as seen as not worth struggling to save • Feared Tsarists (right) more than Socialists (left) • Strain of war • No answer to the land question • Lack of popular support

13. The Civil War 1918-20 Reasons for war Reds:Needed military victory to consolidate grip on power. Whites: War was the only way to challenge Bolshevik absolutism Greens: Fighting for national independence Background of Hunger. Transport issues of WW1 continued, plus Russia lost Ukraine in Brest-Livosk. Russia's “wheat Basket”! • Red Strengths • Area they held had.. • - Administrate centres of Russia (Moscow & Petrograd) • - Most of the rail network, this meant they could keep troops supplied and on the move. • - Industrial centres: this gave them access to munitions and resources the whites didn't have. • Red army and Trotsky leadership • Reds could be seen as champions of Russian people due to allied intervention. • Red Terror (Cheka & Red Army) • High Morale, confident in final victory • White Weaknesses • Various white armies fought separately and with different aims, very rarely worked together to form a united opposition to reds. • Too reliant on supplies from abroad, which didn't arrive in right quantities, place or time. • lacked Leadership of Trotsky like figure. • Political differences often caused conflicts. Important to remember Lenin and Trotsky were International Revolutionaries. This meant they were willing to sacrifice national interest for the cause of world revolution of the workers. This can help explain why Bolsheviks were willing to sign a devastating peace treaty. Treaty a small account when set against the great sweep of world revolution. Bolsheviks had the peasent support at start of conflict; however brutality when dealing with peasants matched white brutality. Only reason people leaned towards reds is that Whites could just offer return to pre- revolutionary past. The Land question meant peasant support was very low for the whites. Foreign Interventions 1918-20 Effects of Civil War on Bolsheviks • Why the Interventions? • Resentment at Russia withdrawal from war • Fear of Bolshevikism • Anger at wiping of foreign debt • To support the whites Who came and where? Americans = Archangel & Siberia France = Odessa Japanese = Vladivostok Toughness The Bolsheviks had taken power during war, they now had to set up a government during war. Of all the members of the Communist party (Bolsheviks) in 1927, a third had joined in the years 1917-20 and had fought in the Civil War. This created a tradition of military obedience and loyalty. Bolsheviks were tough men. Centralisation As war required speedy day-to-day decisions to be made their was a move away from the Central Committee, that took to long, towards the Politburo and Orgburo. These two sub committees set up in 1919 could make decisions quicker. Authoritarianism Because of the large military aspect of early Bolsheviks government it would of been impossible to of survived without resorting to authoritarian measures. • Why the interventions fail? • Lack of Co-ordination and liaison • Tired after WW1 • Very limited objectives • Not a concerted effort to bring down the Bolsheviks Consequences After failure of Invasion into Poland and revolutions in Germany and Hungary Lenin concluded the world was not yet rip for revolution. He therefore modified his foreign policies to avoid conflict with other nations.

14. The Red Terror! This was the repression that accompanied Bolshevik control between 1918-21. the two main instruments of this were the Cheka and Red Army. Both were critical during the civil war. WHY? • Red Army • Turned the old Rubbish Red Army into a 3 million strong fighting force in 2 years. • reinstated old fashioned army, made it very strict. • Conscripted anyone, “everyone to the front”. People unloyal to reds made to dig trenches and move guns etc. • Red idealism boasted morale The Kronstadt Rising, March 1921 War Communism 1918-21 Origin: Problems of Cheka terror, Grain requisitioning and Commissars spying on workers led to “workers opposition” groups led to strikes in Petrograd. These strikes travelled to Kronstadt where they joined with sailors and dockyard workers to demonstrate for greater freedoms. Why the fuss?: This concerned the Bolsheviks because the people who had drafted the plans had been Bolshevik supporters in 1917. called the “heroes of the Revolution” had now turned on the government. Crushed: Trotsky ordered the Red Army to crush the demonstrators. 60000 troops sent and after violent fighting crushed the rising. NEP: Lenin later described this as a “lit up reality like a flashing light” he wanted to avoid the scandal and embarrassment of another type of rising so moved to another economic policy, in order to deal with a famine and lessen the opposition to Bolshevikism. People who are supportive of the Marxist principles of which Communism was based but who turned away from it because of its brutal authoritarianism are said to have experienced their “Kronstadt moment” Summer of 1918, restrictive economic measure to replace “state capitalism” and to meet the needs of the Civil War. • Effects: Industry • Decree of Nationalisation 1918: • Lenin wanted a policy of Centralisation and now he had the Cheka and Red Army to enforce it. The Decree was passed and in two years practically all industry was brought under government control. • Result: this do not raise production because: • Deprived of manpower due to conscription and people moving to find food (Population of Petrograd and Moscow halved from 1918 to 1921. • Hyperinflation caused by quantitative easing. • Military priority Effect: Agriculture Peasants saw no point in producing more food until the government was willing to pay a fair price for it. Although government said these Kulaks (rich, exploiting peasants) were hoarding food, this was untrue. Grain Requisitioning was brought it to repress the peasants and gain food. Cheka squads were sent into the countryside and take grain by force. Lenin ordered Kulaks to be “mercilessly suppressed” Result: Peasants produced even less food as they knew any surplus would just be taken from them. Famine followed in 1921 killing 5 million people. Effects: Church Lenin welcomed the famine as it gave him the opportunity to destroy church. Ordered shooting of priests saying “the more, the better”. • Support? • Many believed it represented true revolutionary communism as it • Centralised industry • Ended private ownership • squeezed peasants Ending Famine, failure of economy and Anti-Bolshevik risings in 1920-21 (Kronstadt) made Lenin think alternative was needed.

15. The New Economic policy (NEP): March 1921 The New Economic policy (NEP): March 1921 Economically war communism had failed, so NEP brought in to meet the food shortage. Lenin judged that if the peasants could not be forced, they had to be pursued. Bukharin's Role The outstanding economist enthusiastic his opposition to the NEP and became its biggest supporter. He said “Enrich yourselves under the NEP” he believed as peasants could sell grain they'd get income, which could be spent on manufactured goods, stimulating industry. • Success • Production figures showed the policy worked. • Value of factory output doubled • average wage of worker doubled • Electricity production tripled • Grain production: 37% increase Problems Agriculture recovered and led to a surplus of food, and a rise in income of peasants. Surplus meant price of food dropped. Industry hadn't recovered as fast so more income meant prices of manufactured goods rose as demand was larger and goods scarce. Danger was that the peasants would lose the incentive to produce extra food as they would have to sell it for a low price and not be able to buy expensive goods. Soviet society under Lenin Lenin's role as Revolutionary • Trotsky claimed that the aim of the communist state was to create Homo sovieticus. This mock term was invented to describe the new “soviet man” • To achieve this culture was brought under state control. The Proletkult (proletarian culture) was used to extend Bolshevik control • Culture had to serve the state, if it didn't it was unacceptable, no place for free expression. Lenin said “the purpose of art and literature is to serve the people” • By 1922 a range of Proletkult organisations set up: • Writers circles • amateur dramatic groups • art studios • poetry workshops • musical appreciation societies • Heir to Russian tradition? • Ways Lenin was like the Tsar • No time for democracy • Authoritarianism (repressive government) • Secret Police (Okranna & Cheka) • 1917 revolution did not mark a break from the past, but rather a replacement of one form of state Authoritarianism with another. • Lenin's adaptability • Modified Marist theory to fit circumstance • Combined Marxist revolutionary stages. “Telescoped revolution” Compressing of the last two stages of revolution

16. Stalin and Lenin’s relationship Stalin's Positions from 1917 Lenin's Funeral Attitudes towards Trotsky People feared Trotsky as the main threat so Kamenev and Zinoviev and Stalin formed a triumvirate within the Politburo. The aim of this was to isolate Trotsky by exploiting his unpopularity with larger sections of the party. Other factors that helped Stalin Straight after Lenin's death, the Politburo whose members were Stalin, Trotsky, Rykov, Tomsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev publicly said they would lead as a collective. However they all wanted to become leader. Stalin: At Lenin's funeral Stalin gained and advance as he made a speech. The sight of Stalin as leading mourner suggested a continuity between Lenin and him. Trotsky: Meanwhile Trotsky ,who had first been offered to make a speech in which he declined, was on holiday. He hadn't even attended the funeral. Hardly giving of the image of a dedicated Leninist. Trotsky predicted Stalin would be the “dictator of the USSR” but did little to stop it. The Lenin enrolment Changes in the structure of the party helped. Between 1923 and 1925 the party set out to increase the number of proletarians in it. This was known as the “Lenin Enrolment”. However the new members were uneducated and politically unsophisticated. They were loyal to the person who had brought them into the CPSU as this allowed them perks. The people who did this worked under Stalin. This therefore provided Stalin with a reliable body of votes all around the party and government. The Attack on Factionalism This was introduced by Lenin to stop opposition to the NEP. What it effectively did was frustrate any serious attempt to criticise party decisions or policies. The challenge of factionalism provided Stalin with a weapon for resisting challengers to the authority he had begun to create.

17. Trotsky's attacks 1924-27 Fighting over policy Permanent revolution VS. Socialism in one country Defeat of Trotsky and the Left Local party bosses, Kamenev and Zinoviev, used their influence to create a pro-Stalin, anti-Trotsky, CPSU Congress in 1925 (this is over “October deserters” attack by Trotsky) Congress votes against Trotsky – he is dismissed as Commissar of War Stalin then turns on Kamenev and Zinoviev who form “united opposition” Polices of United opposition on NEP and industrialisation match Trotsky's. So Kamenevite- Zinoveivite- Trotskyite bloc formed • Stalin uses the Right Communists to deliver the vote in the 1926 Congress that results in • The left united opposition being defeated • Kamenev and Zinoviev dismissed as soviet chairmen • Trotsky expelled from both Politburo and Central Committee 1927 Congress expels Trotsky from the party 1929 he is exiled from the Soviet Union 

18. Defeat of Trotsky and the Left • Trotsky Weakness • Felt inhibited by his Jewishness. Knew about Russia anti- Semitism. Example of this is when in 1917 Lenin offered him the post of Deputy chairman of the soviet government he rejected. Saying “it would..””give enemies grounds for claiming that the country was ruled by a Jew”. • Used to be a Menshevik, this made many older Bolsheviks not trust him. • New “Lenin enrollment” members were not impressed by his cultured attitude and intelligent idea, Stalin was more down to earth and so gained support. • Failed to build a power base so appeared an outsider Local party bosses, Kamenev and Zinoviev, used their influence to create a pro-Stalin, anti-Trotsky, CPSU Congress in 1925 (this is over “October deserters” attack by Trotsky) Congress votes against Trotsky – he is dismissed as Commissar of War Stalin then turns on Kamenev and Zinoviev who form “united opposition” Polices of United opposition on NEP and industrialisation match Trotsky's. So Kamenevite- Zinoveivite- Trotskyite bloc formed • Stalin uses the Right Communists to deliver the vote in the 1926 Congress that results in • The left united opposition being defeated • Kamenev and Zinoviev dismissed as soviet chairmen • Trotsky expelled from both Politburo and Central Committee 1927 Congress expels Trotsky from the party 1929 he is exiled from the Soviet Union  Defeat of Bukharin and the Right Leading Figures of the Right Bukharin, Tomsky, Uglanov Issued raised by the Right When end the NEP? How were the peasants to be treated? What was to be the pace of industrialisation? Weakness of the Right Lacked appealing ideas: Could be seen as unrevolutionary Poorly organised Leaders unable to rally real support By 1929 Stalin had triumphed over the Left and Right! He now held complete power. he was the Vozhd! (Supreme leader, like a Fuhrer)

19. The Second Revolution Collectivisation Crash course of transforming Russia into a modern industrial country. Unlike 1917 this would be a revolution from above, with state controlling things. Stalin judged the only way to raise capital for Industrialisation was to use the land. • Aim: • To end private land ownership of peasants and give all land to the state. Peasants would pool together and farm the land for a wage. This would allow the USSR to take the collective profits to finance a massive industrialisation programme. • Stalin described it as “The setting up of Collective farms in order to squeeze out all capitalist elements from the land” • 50 or 100 private holdings would be joint to create large farms. It was believed that larger farms would be more efficient and would encourage the effective use of agricultural machinery. The tractor became the symbol of the mechanising of soviet farming.  Tractorisation • Efficient farming would have two results: • would create surplus grain that could be sold abroad to raise capital • decrease the number of rural labourers needed so release new workers for the new factories Stalin said in 1931: “We are fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries. We must make this distance up in ten years. Either we do it, or we shall be crushed. “ Aim A second revolution to modernise Russia • Motives • To establish his credentials and authority as a leader • To Increase military strength (paranoid USSR would be attacked soon) • To achieve self -sufficiency (Socialism in one country) • To move towards a socialist society (end NEP and peasants grip on economy, impose state control , create more workers in the workers country) Means Collectivisation Industrialisation The Kulaks Results (1) Upon its introduction in 1928 Stalin said Collectivisation was voluntary. But in truth it was enforced on a reluctant peasantry. Stalin indentified a class of “Kulaks” who were holding back the workers revolution by monopolising the best land. By hoarding their produce they kept grain prices high thus getting rich. Stalin believed unless they were broken as a class they would prevent the modernisation of the USSR Despite this class being a Stalinist Myth it provided the grounds for the oppression of the peasantry as a whole. De-Kulaklisation OPGU (new name for Cheka) squads were sent to arrest and deport Kulaks. This was the prelude for a widespread of physical attacks by the poorer peasants. The richer peasants land was seized. This renewal of terror was a warning to the mass peasantry of the consequences of resisting the new agricultural plans. • Production Fell & Famine • Resistance • In the period of 1929-30 • 30000 arson attacks occurred • number of rural demonstrations rose by double. • peasants ate their corn and destroyed their livestock so it couldn't be collectivised • Soviet authorities responded with harsher repression. Imprisonment, deportation and execution. But this just lowered production further. Despite the beginning of famine due to the chaos: “surplus” grain was still being sold to finance industry. • Migration • When national famine occured many peasants produced even less. Many peasants decided to move to the cities and towns in desperation. As the OPGU grain requisitioning meant their was more food available in Urban areas.

20. Results (2) Industrialisation Stalin described his plans as establishing a War Economy. He was preparing the USSR for war with its capitalist enemies. Stalin regarding Iron, Steel and Oil as the sinews of war. Their successful production would guarantee the strength and readiness of the nation to face its enemies. Gosplan was required by Stalin to write up a set of quota (targets) these were called the FYP, their was 5 of these. • Despite the famine the government adopted an “Official Silence” • This meant that they pretended their was no famine. this meant that • Stalin's reputation wasn't damaged; “soviet people were sacrificed on the alter of Stalin's reputation” • Prevented measures to relive the famine as it did not officially exist. So no foreign aid could be accepted like the 1921 famine. • Points of note about Collectivisation and the Famine • “First man made famine in history” • “Second Serfdom” • 14.5 million death toll • by 1939 production had returned to 1913 level. Such as the chaos of polices. • Was it justifiable?: Economically it did redress the balance of Russia as many people moved to the cities. This had been a major problem since before communism. Stalin enforced the needed change from a Rural agricultural society to a urban and industrial one. • Stalin's aims were understandable but his methods were unacceptable First FYP (1) (October 1928 – December 1932) First FYP (2) (October 1928 – December 1932) • The emphasis was on heavy industries, coal, oil, iron, steel, electricity, cement, timber and metals. This accounted for 80% of all investment. • Success? • electricity production trebled • coal and iron output doubled • Steel production increased by 1/3 rd • Increased output of machine tools • Huge new industrial complexes built (Magnitogorsk) • Weakness? • Decline in consumer industries (although this was planned) • Chemical targets not reached • Production targets fiddled with • due to peasants in factories. Skill was low which meant quality was low, so due to Gigantomania it was all about quantity. • Cultural Revolution • Economic changes in this period a real attempt is being made to create a new type of individual. Homo Sovieticus (soviet man). • Genuine enthusiasm had swept across the country. People believed they were building a new and better world. This was a combination of Oppression, Propaganda and genuine enthusiasm. • Sabotage • A series of show trails of “wreckers” scared workers in being productive. • The “Bourgeois experts” were not to be tolerated no longer (quantity of quality) • Managers who did not meet their targets branded as enemies of the state, so they fiddled figures or produced at very low quality

21. Second & Third FYP (1) . (January 1933 – December 1937) (January 1938 – June 1941) Second & Third FYP (2) . (January 1933 – December 1937) (January 1938 – June 1941) • Good • By 1937 the USSR was self sufficient in machine making and metal working • Defence and armaments grew rapidly in Third FYP as resources diverted to it. • Better transport system • Industry built on foundations of First FYP and continued to expand • Success of big projects such as Dnieprostroi dam and White Sea Canal • The Stakhanovite movement: 1935 • It was officially reported that in August 1935 a miner, Alexei Stakhanov, had single handily cut over 100 tons of coal in one five hour shift. • The government turned this into a propaganda campaign to encourage people to increase their productivity and to show what could be achieved under the Great Stalin. • Bad • More realistic targets. Production raised of history industry, however: • lack of co ordination. Meant overproduction in some areas and under production in others • Spare parts hard to come by, so broken machinery lay broke for long time periods • Fierce competition between sectors of industry to obtain materials so they could avoid being branded “saboteurs”, as a result their was hording and lack of co operation between sectors • Shortage of Skilled workers in 1938 sent Gosplan into Chaos (purges to blame) • Scapegoats • This scared attitude towards highlighting a problem in the plans meant issues were only relived at serious breakdowns. This hindered economic growth. Scapegoats where found for these failings. • Time of the purges, war on Bourgeois experts was a serve loss to industry • Workers had to accept harsher conditions or face persecution Second revolution: Overall Judgement • Bad • Old, wasteful techniques used: Not efficient • no attention to quality goods that could be sold aboard to raise money USSR needed. • Couldn't compete with economies of Europe or USA • Lowered Soviet peoples living standards • Failed to increase Agricultural productivity. Meant food had to be bought in draining USSRs limited finance • Poor balance between sectors of industry • Quotes • “Stalinism is one way on attaining industrialisation, just as cannibalism is one way of attaining a high protein diet” – Robert Conquest • Good • From 1927-1940 • - Coal production Quadrupled • - Steel production increased by 6 times • - Oil doubled • - Electricity quadrupled • USSR survived Great Patriotic War • Grand projects completed. Made USSR look good to outside world • Quotes • Outcome of the polices was “an economy that was strong enough to sustain the USSR though four years of the most demanding of modern wars.” “Russia could not have been modernised by any other methods other than those used by Stalin”. – Peter Gattrell

22. Early Purges Development of Purges, 1933-34 • Terror • In 1934 the purges developed into a system of terror. Its hard to say why • Stalin's increasing paranoia • his “Gross personality disorder” Stalin saw everyone as a potential enemy • Mechanism of control • In the years 1933-34 Stalin centralised all major law enforcement agencies • The civilian police • The secret police • Labour camps commandants and guards • Border and security Guards • All of these were put under the NKVD. (new OGPU, which was once Cheka) That was answerable directly to Stalin. • Military courts established to deal with “serous crimes”. This term meant anything that challenged Stalin's power, for example “counter-revolutionary activity” was a serious crime. • This system made the purges possible ! • Having become the Vozhd in 1929,l Stalin spent the rest of his life consolidating and extending his authority. • Early purges included • Shakhty Affair public trail (FYP saboteurs) • Ryutin Group who criticised Stalin were expelled from the party. Following this in 1933-34 One million of the three million members of the CPSU were excluded from the party on the grounds they were “Ryutinites” however this was a peaceful purge. It was done by the removing of party cards. Kirov's murder: 1st December 1934 Party Purges after Kirov Kirov was secretary of the Leningrad Soviet and popular within the party. A striking handsome Russian that had made a great impression at the 17th party congress in 1934 and had been elected to the Politburo. It was known he was unhappy with Stalin's economic policies and his disciplining of party members. Stalin felt his position was threatened by Kirov. Kirov was murdered by Leonoid Nikolaev on the 1st of December. Whatever the motives Stalin used this to his advantage. Within two hours he signed the Decree against Terrorist Acts. This gave the NKVD unlimited powers in pursing enemies of the state. Stalin claimed the assassination had been organised by a circle of Trotskyites and Leftists. So he purged them. Zinoviev and Kamenev were arrested as well of 1000s of other party members. • The “Stalin enrolment” 1931-34 had meant the CPSU had recruited a higher proportion of skilled workers and industrial managers than at any time since 1917, the aim of this was to tighten links between party and those involved in FYP’s. • The new members were aware of Stalin's patronage that had advanced their career, so in return supported him and his purges. • The representatives of the 1934 party Congress. • of the 1996 delegates, 1108 were executed during the next three years (over ½) • out of the 139 Central committee members. Only 41 survived the purges. • All key positions throughout the CPSU were filled by Stalinists. Their was no significant area of the Soviet Bureaucracy that Stalin didn't control. • “Stalin had became the party” – Leonard Shapiro

23. The Great Purges: 1936-39 The Great Purges: The Party (1) • Purging the Left • CPSU sent a secret letter n 1936 warning of a terrorist conspiracy by the “Trotskyite-Kamenevite–Zinovievite– Leftist counter-revolutionary bloc” • Kamenev & Zinoviev were put on public trail in Moscow. Both men pleaded guilty to involvement in Kirov's murder. But why? • Physical and mental torture used • Sense of demoralisation at having been accused and disgraced by the party they dedicated their lives too. • Admission of guilt their last act of loyalty to the party • Their confession made it difficult for other people to plead their innocence. It created an atmosphere were innocent people accepted charges and begged for parties foreignness. • Trail of the 16! • Despite Earlier purges Stalin was not satisfied. He declared Russia was in a “state of siege” in 1936 progressive terrorising of the Soviet union began which affected the entire population • Terror programme can be broken down into three sections • Purge of party • Purge of Armed forces • purge of the people The Great Purges: The Party (2) The Great Purges: The Armed Forces • Stalin knew that if anyone could organise a revolution or Coup. It would be the military leaders. So he purged them. • In may 1937 it was announced that “a gigantic conspiracy” had been discovered in the Red Army. Eight generals were arrested, all of whom were considered “heroes of the Civil War” a trail was held in secret and in June 1937 with evidence provided by the Nazis upon request by the NKVD was men confessed and were executed. To prevent a retaliation over the next 18 months • All 11 war commissars were removed from office • Three of the five Marshals of the Soviet Union were dismissed • 91 members of the 101 man Supreme military council were dismissed • Half of 35000 officers were shot • In a time of great foreign tension it deifies logic that Stalin had crippled Russia's fighting force. It suggests he had lost touch with reality. Purging the Right the details of the 16s confession incriminated the right. Therefore Stalin prepared the next wave of political purges upon the “right deviationists”. Bukharin, Rykov and Tomsky were arrested but not charged as their was a delay. This was caused by a reluctance of some older Bolsheviks to denounce their comrades. “Anti-Soviet Trotskyite Centre” The trail of the 17 in 1937 provided evidence against the right. The 17 members of the “Anti-Soviet Trotskyite Centre” were accused of spying for Nazi Germany. Purging the Right The evidence had been collected. In 1938 the third major show trail of the 21 including Bukharin & Rykov (Tomsky had killed himself) sentenced the “Trotskyite-Rightist” with a number of crimes. Stalin Constitution: 1936: This constitution didn't say anything about party power. Meaning therefore it was unlimited.

24. The Great Purges: The People The Great Purges: Conclusion • Overall figures • 29 million arrested, most send to labour camps • 15 million died. • This exceeded the Nazi Holocaust • Although Stalin started purges, many people welcomed them. • Purges as much from below from above. • As far back as Russian people can remember, the people have always been forced to obey. The purges were just the natural progression of this. • The Novenklatura. The new Stalinist ruling class of elite that had replaced the old Bolsheviks. Because of the rights they enjoyed: more food, luxury homes, motor cars. Were totally loyal to Stalin. • Local party bosses saw the purges an opportunity to advance their career. If their bosses were purged, they’d get a promotion. • The role of Ideology is important. People genuine believed the purges were justified as they building a Communist paradise on earth. • One person in every eight of the population was arrested during the purges • Almost every family in the USSR suffered a loss of at least one of its members as a victim of the terror. • The Quota system • Quotas were set on the amount of people that had to be arrested. Random people were arrested in order to make the quota, like an industrial target. People no longer seen as people, now seen as numbers. • On the day of the 12th of November 1938 Stalin & Molotov sanctioned the execution of 3100 people Stalin’s Cult of Personality Stalin’s Cult of Personality: Results Adolf Hitler once wrote that “the personality cult is the best form of government” • Purpose of this: • To reinforce a belief in the achievements of socialism, the soviet government and Stalin. • To create a personality cult around Stalin which raised him to the level of Vozhd. • To bond Stalin to the state so any criticism of him was seen as Anti- Soviet, their fore treason. • Methods • The media (propaganda) • Leisure and Public celebrations • Arts and popular culture • Education • Youth Organisations Stalin became the party itself, then he became the image of the nation. Communism was no longer a set of theories, it became what ever Stalin said or did. Soviet communism was Stalinism. Stalin personified everything good about Russia. The communist movement, which in theory drew its authority from the will of the masses, became so dependant on one leader. People had a Quasi- religious faith in Stalin. This means a conviction so powerful it has the intensity of a religious believe, they worshiped him.

25. Characteristics of the USSR in 1941 • Bureaucracy • One – Party government • Command Economy • Police State (climate of fear) • Socialist science • Privileged Elite • Strict censorship • International isolation • Dominant Stalinist Ideology