Electromagnetism Lecture#13

1. ElectromagnetismLecture#13 Muhammad Mateen Yaqoob The University of Lahore Sargodha Campus

2. Applications of RC and RL circuits • RC and RL Circuits have many applications in the field of Electrical, Electronics, Communication, Computer Engineering, Signal Processing and so on • These circuits have many practical applications, some of their major applications are listed below: • Amplifiers • Oscillators • Filters • Switching Regulator • Tuned Amplifiers • Radio Transmitter and Receiver • TV Receiver Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

3. Categories of Solids • There are three categories of solids, based on their conducting properties: • conductors • semiconductors • insulators Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

4. 0 Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity of Selected Materials at 293 K Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

5. Reviewing the previous table reveals that: • The electrical conductivity at room temperature is quite different for each of these three kinds of solids • Metals and alloys have the highest conductivities • followed by semiconductors • and then by insulators Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

6. Band Theory of Solids • In order to account for decreasing resistivitywith increasing temperature as well as other properties of semiconductors, a new theory known as the band theory is introduced. • The essential feature of the band theory is that the allowed energy states for electrons are nearly continuous over certain ranges, called energy bands, with forbidden energy gaps between the bands. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

7. Valence band: Band occupied by the outermost electrons Conduction: Lowest band with unoccupied states Conductor: Valence band partially filled (half full) Cu. or Conduction band overlaps the valence band Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

8. Resistivity vs. Temperature Figure:(a) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor. Notice the linear rise in resistivity with increasing temperature at all but very low temperatures. (b) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical conductor at very low temperatures. Notice that the curve flattens and approaches a nonzero resistance as T→ 0. (c) Resistivity versus temperature for a typical semiconductor. The resistivity increases dramatically as T → 0. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

9. Band Theory and Conductivity • Band theory helps us understand what makes a conductor, insulator, or semiconductor. • Good conductors like copper can be understood using the free electron • It is also possible to make a conductor using a material with its highest band filled, in which case no electron in that band can be considered free. • If this filled band overlaps with the next higher band, however (so that effectively there is no gap between these two bands) then an applied electric field can make an electron from the filled band jump to the higher level. • This allows conduction to take place, although typically with slightly higher resistance than in normal metals. Such materials are known as semimetals. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

10. Valence and Conduction Bands • The band structures of insulators and semiconductors resemble each other qualitatively. Normally there exists in both insulators and semiconductors a filled energy band (referred to as the valence band) separated from the next higher band (referred to as the conduction band) by an energy gap. • If this gap is at least several electron volts, the material is an insulator. It is too difficult for an applied field to overcome that large an energy gap, and thermal excitations lack the energy to promote sufficient numbers of electrons to the conduction band. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

11. Smaller energy gaps create semiconductors • For energy gaps smaller than about 1 electron volt, it is possible for enough electrons to be excited thermally into the conduction band, so that an applied electric field can produce a modest current. The result is a semiconductor. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

12. Temperature and Resistivity • When the temperature is increased from T = 0, more and more atoms are found in excited states. • The increased number of electrons in excited states explains the temperature dependence of the resistivity of semiconductors. Only those electrons that have jumped from the valence band to the conduction band are available to participate in the conduction process in a semiconductor. More and more electrons are found in the conduction band as the temperature is increased, and the resistivity of the semiconductor therefore decreases. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

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15. Holes and Intrinsic Semiconductors • When electrons move into the conduction band, they leave behind vacancies in the valence band. These vacancies are called holes. Because holes represent the absence of negative charges, it is useful to think of them as positive charges. • Whereas the electrons move in a direction opposite to the applied electric field, the holes move in the direction of the electric field. • A semiconductor in which there is a balance between the number of electrons in the conduction band and the number of holes in the valence band is called an intrinsic semiconductor. Examples of intrinsic semiconductors include pure carbon and germanium. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

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17. Impurity Semiconductor • It is possible to fine-tune a semiconductor’s properties by adding a small amount of another material, called a dopant, to the semiconductor creating what is a called an impurity semiconductor. • As an example, silicon has four electrons in its outermost shell (this corresponds to the valence band) and arsenic has five. Thus while four of arsenic’s outer-shell electrons participate in covalent bonding with its nearest neighbors (just as another silicon atom would), the fifth electron is very weakly bound. It takes only about 0.05 eV to move this extra electron into the conduction band. • The effect is that adding only a small amount of arsenic to silicon greatly increases the electrical conductivity. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

18. Extra weakly bound valence electron from As lies in an energy level close to the empty conduction band. These levels donate electrons to the conduction band. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

19. n-type Semiconductor • The addition of arsenic to silicon creates what is known as an n-type semiconductor (n for negative), because it is the electrons close to the conduction band that will eventually carry electrical current. The new arsenic energy levels just below the conduction band are called donor levels because an electron there is easily donated to the conduction band. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

20. Ga has only three electrons and creates a hole in one of the bonds. As electrons move into the hole the hole moves driving electric current Impurity creates empty energy levels just above the filled valence band Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

21. Acceptor Levels • Consider what happens when indium is added to silicon. • Indium has one less electron in its outer shell than silicon. The result is one extra hole per indium atom. The existence of these holes creates extra energy levels just above the valence band, because it takes relatively little energy to move another electron into a hole • Those new indium levels are called acceptor levels because they can easily accept an electron from the valence band. Again, the result is an increased flow of current (or, equivalently, lower electrical resistance) as the electrons move to fill holes under an applied electric field • It is always easier to think in terms of the flow of positive charges (holes) in the direction of the applied field, so we call this a p-type semiconductor (p for positive). • acceptor levels p-Type semiconductors • In addition to intrinsic and impurity semiconductors, there are many compound semiconductors, which consist of equal numbers of two kinds of atoms. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

22. At a pn junction holes diffuse from the p side Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

23. pn junction Region depleted from mobile carriers Potential barrier prevents further diffusion of holes and electrons. Zero current for no external E field Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

24. Intrinsic Semiconductor • Elemental or pure semiconductors have equal numbers of holes and electrons • Depends on temperature, type, and size. • Compound Semiconductors can be formed from two (or more) elements (e.g., GaAs) Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

25. Extrinsic Semiconductors • A pure semiconductors where a small amount of another element is added to replace atoms in the lattice (doping). • The aim is to produce an excess of either electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type) • Typical doping concentrations are one part in ten million • Doping must be uniform throughout the lattice so that charges do not accumulate Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

26. N-Type and P-Type • One valence electron too many (n-type) • Arsenic, antimony, bismuth, phosphorus • One valence electron too few (p-type) • Aluminum, indium, gallium, boron Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

27. More positive than rest of N More negative than rest of P The PN Junction Diode Start with a P and N type material. Note that there are excess negatives in the n-type and excess positives in the p-type Merge the two – some of the negatives migrate over to the p-type, filling in the holes. The yellow region is called the depletion zone. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

28. Biasing the Junction Apply a voltage as indicated. The free charge carriers (negative charges in the N material and positive charges in the P material) are attracted to the ends of the crystal. No charge flows across the junction and the depletion zone grows. This is called reverse bias. Switch polarity. Now the negative charges are driven toward the junction in the N material and the positive charges also are driven toward the junction in the P material. The depletion zone shrinks and will disappear if the voltage exceeds a threshold. This is called forward bias. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

29. P material (anode) N material (cathode) Reverse Bias Forward Bias Diode Circuit Symbols Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

30. Types of Diodes • Rectifier Diode • Used in power supplies • Signal Diode • Used in switches, detectors, mixers, etc. • Zener Diode • Voltage regulation – operated reverse bias in the avalanche region • Reference Diode • Used like zener for voltage regulation Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

31. Rectification • Conversion of ac to dc. • Many devices (transistors) are unidirectional current devices • DC required for proper operation. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

32. Half Wave Rectifier Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

33. Full Wave Rectifier Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

34. Bridge Rectifier Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

35. LEDs • When forward biased, electrons from the N-type material may recombine with holes in the P-type material. • System energy is decreased • Excess energy emitted as light • Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) semiconductors have been used to make colored LEDs • Stop lights • Progress toward white LEDs is promising Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

36. P material N material Laser Diodes Used in forward bias. Electrons move into depletion zone and recombine with holes, producing light (like an LED). More electron-hole recombinations can be stimulated by this photon, producing more photons at the same wavelength. The mirrors reflect the photons back and forth through the depletion zone, stimulating more photon at each pass. Eventually, the beam passes out of the right hand mirror. Highly Reflective Mirror Partially Reflective Mirror Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

37. Laser Diode Photodiode Laser Diode Application • Used as CD and DVD detector Also used as bar code readers, laser pointers, fiber optics, etc. Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

38. LCD • Liquid Crystal Display • State between solid and liquid • Requires only a little heat to change material into a liquid • Used as thermometers or mood rings • Electric currents are used to orient the crystals in predictable ways • The liquid crystals polarize the light (either internal light source or external) to give light and dark areas on the display Mateen Yaqoob Department of Computer Science

39. Field Effect Transistors (FET) • The three terminals of the FET are known as the drain, source, and gate, and these correspond to the collector, emitter, and base, respectively, of a bipolar transistor. Figure:(a) A schematic of a FET. The two gate regions are connected internally. (b) The circuit symbol for the FET, assuming the source-to-drain channel is of n-type material and the gate is p-type. If the channel is p-type and the gate n-type, then the arrow is reversed. (c) An amplifier circuit containing a FET.

40. Integrated Circuits • The most important use of all these semiconductor devices today is not in discrete components, but rather in integrated circuits called chips. • Some integrated circuits contain a million or more components such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors. • Two benefits:miniaturization and processing speed.

41. Moore’s Law and Computing Power Figure: Moore’s law, showing the progress in computing power over a 30-year span, illustrated here with Intel chip names. The Pentium 4 contains over 50 million transistors.

42. Nanotechnology • Nanotechnology is generally defined as the scientific study and manufacture of materials on a submicron scale. • These scales range from single atoms (on the order of .1 nm up to 1 micron (1000 nm). • This technology has applications in engineering, chemistry, and the life sciences and, as such, is interdisciplinary.