Chapter 18

1. Chapter 18 Socio-emotional Development in Late Adulthood ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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4. Erikson’s Theory • Integrity versus Despair • Robert Peck’s Reworking of Erikson’s Final Stage • Life Review ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

5. Integrity versus Despair • Erikson’s eighth and final stage of development, experienced during late adulthood. • Involves reflecting on the past and either piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has not been well spent. • If the older adult has developed a positive outlook in each of the preceding periods, then retrospective glances and reminiscence will reveal a picture of a life well spent (integrity). • Negative reflections of the past lead to despair. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

6. Robert Peck’s Reworking of Erikson’s Final Stage • Differentiation versus Role Preoccupation • Body Transcendence versus Body Preoccupation • Ego Transcendence versus Ego Preoccupation ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

7. Differentiation versus Role Preoccupation • Peck’s developmental task in which older adults must redefine their worth in terms of something other than work roles. • Peck believes older adults need to pursue a set of valued activities so that time previously spent in an occupation and with children can be filled. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

8. Body Transcendence versus Body Preoccupation • Peck’s developmental task in which older adults must cope with declining physical well-being. • For those whose identity has revolved around their physical well-being, the decrease in health and deterioration of physical capabilities may present a severe threat to identity and feelings of life satisfaction. • Many older adults who experience illnesses enjoy life through human relationships. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

9. Ego Transcendence versus Ego Preoccupation • Peck’s developmental task in which older adults must recognize that while death is inevitable and probably not too far away, they feel at ease with themselves by realizing that they have contributed to the future through the competent rearing of their children or through their vocation and ideas. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

10. Life Review • Involves looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating, interpreting, and often reinterpreting them. • Robert Butler believes the life review is set in motion by looking forward to death. • Life reviews can include sociocultural issues, interpersonal and relationship dimensions, and personal dimensions. • Hidden themes of great meaning to the individual may emerge, changing the nature of the person’s sense of self. • http://vad.mhhe.com/provided_module.cfm?ModuleID=230(Socioemotional Changes in Late Adulthood: “On Dying at Age 71”) ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

11. Disengagement Theory • States that to cope effectively older adults should gradually withdraw from society. • Older adults develop increasing self preoccupation, lessen emotional ties with others, and show decreasing interest in society’s affairs. • By following these strategies of disengagement, it was believed that older adults would enjoy enhanced life satisfaction. • These were the prevailing beliefs about older adults early in the 20th century. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

12. Activity Theory • States that the more active and involved older adults are, the more likely they will be satisfied with their lives. • Researchers have found strong support for activity theory, as when older adults are active, energetic, and productive, they age more successfully and are happier. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

13. Socio-emotional Selectivity Theory • States that older adults become more selective about their social networks. • Because they place a high value on emotional satisfaction, older adults often spend more time with familiar individuals with whom they have had rewarding relationships. • Older adults systematically hone their social networks so that available social partners satisfy their emotional needs. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

14. Selective Optimization with Compensation Theory • Paul Baltes’ theory states that successful aging is linked with three main factors: selection, optimization, and compensation. • The process of selective optimization with compensation is likely to be effective whenever loss is prominent in a person’s life. • Because of individual variations in the nature of losses, the specific form of selection, optimization, and compensation will likely vary. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

15. Selection, Optimization, and Compensation • Selection is based on the concept that older adults have a reduced capacity and loss of functioning, which requires a reduction in performance in most life domains. • Optimization suggests that it is possible to maintain performance in some areas through continued practice and the use of new technologies. • Compensation becomes relevant when life tasks require a level of capacity beyond the current level of the older adult’s performance potential. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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17. Stereotyping Older Adults • Ageism is prejudice against others because of their age, especially prejudice against older adults. • Older adults may be perceived as incapable of thinking clearly, learning new things, enjoying sex, contributing to the community, and holding responsible jobs. • Many groups now exist to lobby and fight for issues related to the rights of the elderly. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

18. Policy Issues in an Aging Society • The Status of the Economy • The Provision of Health Care • Eldercare • Generational Inequity ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

19. The Status of the Economy • There exists the concern that our economy cannot bear the burden of so many older persons, who by reason of their age are consumers rather than producers. • Not all persons 65 and over are nonworkers and not all persons 18–64 are workers. • Considerably more individuals in the 55–64 age group are in the workforce than a decade ago. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

20. The Provision of Health Care • Escalating health-care costs are currently causing considerable concern. • One factor that contributes to the surge in health costs is the increasing number of older adults • While many of the health problems of the elderly are chronic, the medical system is based on a “cure” rather than a “care” model. • http://vad.mhhe.com/provided_module.cfm?ModuleID=230(Socioemotional Changes in Late Adulthood: “Caring for the Elderly”) ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

21. Eldercare • The physical and emotional caretaking of older members of the family, whether that care is day-to-day physical assistance or responsibility for arranging and overseeing such care. • An important issue is how it can best be provided. • An added problem is many caregivers are in their sixties and many are ill themselves. • Some gerontologists advocate that the government should provide financial support to help care for aging individuals. • This support has been slow to develop, however. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

22. Generational Inequity • States that an aging society is being unfair to its younger members because older adults pile up advantages by receiving an inequitably large allocation of resources. • It raises questions about whether the young should be required to pay for the old. • Some authors believe this inequity produces intergenerational conflict and divisiveness in society at large. • Another issue is whether or not the “advantaged” old population is using up resources that should go to disadvantaged children. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

23. Work and Retirement • In men, good health, a strong psychological commitment to work, and a distaste for retirement were the most important characteristics related to continued employment into old age. • An increasing number of middle-aged and older adults are embarking on a second or third career. • Working affords opportunities for productive activity, social interaction, and a positive identity. • Cognitive ability is one of the best predictors of job performance in the elderly. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

24. Retirement in Canada and Other Countries • Mandatory retirement occurs in Canada for most workers at age 65. • However, there is no Canadian law that enforces mandatory retirement. • In many European countries, officials have experimented with various financial inducements designed to reduce or control employment by encouraging retirement of older workers. • However, in the Netherlands, there is an effort to recruit persons to reenter the workforce because of low unemployment in the country. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

25. Adjustment to Retirement • Older adults who are healthy, have adequate income, are active, are better educated, and have extended social networks adjust better to retirement. • Cultivating interests and friends unrelated to work improves adaptation to retirement. • It is important to plan financially for retirement, and to consider other areas of your life as well. • Individuals who retire involuntarily are more unhealthy, depressed, and poorly adjusted than those who retire voluntarily. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

26. Income • Since 1980, Canadian seniors have seen a steady increase in their incomes. • The income gap between men and women has closed significantly during the last two decades of the 20th century. • Canadian Pension Plan/Quebec Pension Plan, Old Age Security, and private pension plans through employers and their own retirement savings plans make up the sources for senior’s income. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

27. Living Arrangements • Nearly 95% of older adults live in the community. • Almost 66% live with family members. • Almost 33% live alone. • The quality of housing for the elderly is far too often inadequate. • The older adults become, the more likely they are to live in an institution. • The majority of the elderly in institutions are widows, and they are increasing in number. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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29. The Aging Couple • Individuals who are married in late adulthood are happier than those who are single. • Marital satisfaction is greater for women than men. • A number of older adults date. • Older adults enjoy touching and caressing as part of their sexual relationships. • When older adults are healthy, they still engage in sexual activities. • Companionship often becomes more important. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

30. Grandparenting • Satisfaction with Grandparenting • Grandparenting Roles • Grandparenting Styles • The Changing Profile of Grandparents ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

31. Satisfaction with Grandparenting • A majority of grandparents say grandparenting is easier than parenting. • In one study, middle-aged grandparents were more willing to give advice and to assume responsibility for watching and disciplining grandchildren than were older grandparents. • Frequent contact with grandchildren has predicted high levels of satisfaction in grandparenting for both grandmothers and grandfathers. • Opportunities to observe their grandchildren’s development and share in their activities were described as the best features of grandparenting. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

32. Grandparenting Roles • Grandparenting can be a source of biological reward and continuity. • Grandparenting can be a source of emotional self-fulfillment, generating feelings of companionship and satisfaction that may have been missing in earlier adult-child relationships. • Grandparenting is not as important to some, who experience it as a remote role. • The grandparent role may have different functions in different families, ethnic groups, and cultures, and in different situations. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

33. Grandparenting Styles • Formal style– perform in what is considered to be a proper and prescribed role. • They show a strong interest in their grandchildren, but leave the parenting to the parents. • Fun-seeking– informal and playful. • Grandchildren are a source of leisure activity and they emphasize mutual satisfaction. • Distant figure– benevolent, but interaction occurs on an infrequent basis. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

34. The Changing Profile of Grandparents • Climbing divorce rates, teen pregnancies, and drug use are the main reasons that grandparents are now being thrust back into the “parenting” role. • In 2001, 1% of Canadian grandparents lived with their grandchildren, with no middle generation in the home. • Grandparents who take in grandchildren are in better health, are better educated, are more likely to be working outside the home, and are younger than grandparents who move in with their children. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

35. Friendship • People choose close friends over new friends as they grow older. • As long as they have several close people in their network, they seem content. • A recent study revealed that older men declined in number of new friends, in their desire for close friendships, and in involvement beyond family activities; older women did not. • Friendships with unrelated adults may help to replace the warmth, companionship, and nurturance that used to come from families. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

36. Social Support and Social Integration • Social support can help individuals of all ages cope more effectively. • Social support can improve the physical and mental health of older adults. • In one study, being part of a social network was related to longevity, especially for men. • Another study showed both men and women with more organizational memberships lived longer than their counterparts with low group participation. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

37. Fear of Victimization and Crime • Some of the physical decline and limitations that characterize development in late adulthood contribute to a sense of vulnerability and fear among older adults. • Almost one-fourth of older adults say they have a basic fear of being the victim of a crime. • They are, however, less likely than younger adults to be the victim of a crime. • Fear of crime may become a deterrent to travel, attendance at social events, and the pursuit of an active lifestyle. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

38. Elder Maltreatment • Elder maltreatment is primarily carried out by family members. • The perpetrators are most likely to be male spouses. • It can involve neglect or physical abuse. • Elderly women also are more likely to experience property damage and robbery. • In these cases, though, the perpetrator is most likely to be a young male unrelated to the victim. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

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40. Gender and Ethnicity • Gender • Racism and Sexism • Ethnicity ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

41. Gender • Some developmentalists believe there is decreasing femininity in women and decreasing masculinity in men when they reach late adulthood. • Evidence shows that whereas the latter is true—men become more nurturant, sensitive, etc.—women do not become more masculine—assertive, dominant, etc. • One study found that between 1958 and 1992, older men decreased their time in paid work and spent more time doing housework related activities, while older women engaged in more paid work. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

42. Racism and Sexism • Many women face the burden of both ageism and sexism. • The poverty rate for elderly females is almost double that of elderly males. • Only recently has scientific and political interest in the aging woman developed. • Special attention needs to be devoted to the elderly who are female ethnic minorities. • They face triple jeopardy—ageism, sexism, racism. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

43. Ethnicity • Ethnic minority older individuals face problems related to both ageism and racism. • The wealth and the health of ethnic minority elderly decrease faster than that of elderly White. • They are more likely to become ill but less likely to receive treatment. • Many ethnic minority workers never enjoy the Social Security and Medicare benefits because they die before being eligible. • Family networks help elderly minorities cope. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

44. Culture • There are several factors most likely to predict high status for the elderly in a culture. • In general, respect for older adults is greater in collectivistic (such as China and Japan) than individualistic (such as the U.S.) cultures. • Researchers are finding that this differentiation is not as strong as it used to be. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

45. Factors Predicting High Status for the Elderly • Older persons have valuable knowledge. • They control key family/community resources. • They are permitted to engage in useful and valued functions as long as possible. • There is a role continuity throughout the life span. • Age-related role changes involve greater responsibility, authority, and advisory capacity. • The extended family is a common family arrangement in the culture, and the older person is integrated into the extended family. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

46. Aspects of Successful Aging • Proper diet • Active lifestyle • Mental stimulation and flexibility • Positive coping skills • Good social relationships and support ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.

47. Successful Aging Lifestyle • Being active is particularly important in successful aging. • Older adults who go to meetings, participate in church activities, go on trips, and exercise regularly are more satisfied with their lives. • Successful aging also involves perceived control over the environment and a sense of self-efficacy. • Researchers have found that many older adults are quite effective in maintaining a sense of control and have a positive view of themselves. ©2005 McGraw-Hill Ryerson Ltd.