Is brain-behavior behavior?

1. Is brain-behavior behavior? • If so, it can be conditioned just like other behaviors • In 1960s, certain rhythms could be “trained” • Led to Neurotherapy and Brain-Computer interfaces (BCI)

2. History of Biofeedback • JH Bair, 1901, instrument used to teach ear wiggling • In early 20th century, J.H. Schultz in Germany developed a technique called Autogenic Training. Verbal instructions are used to guide a person to a more relaxed and controlled physiological state. • The method flourished, and the results were reported upon by Wolfgang Luthe in 1969 in the United States. • Increased awareness in Western world of yogic ability to alter physiology volitionally. E.g., a yogi could survive in a sealed box by voluntarily reducing his metabolic rate significantly, surviving hours with a limited supply of oxygen. • Peripheral biofeedback techniques include • GSR, thermal, breathing, cardiac

3. Internal inhibition • Pavlov conditioning experiments • Tone for food, buzzer for shock – • Moved them closer together in time • confounded dog fell asleep • Termed “internal inhibition” • Animal can close down own systems to avoid stress

4. History of EEG biofeedback • 1934, Adrian watched his EEG in front of oscillograph and created alpha at will • 1958, alpha biofeedback or deep states • Joe Kamiya at U Chicago • Subject 1, • 1st trial, 60 tones  60 guesses, half right • 2nd, 65 % correct • 3rd, 85% correct • 4th, after initial mistakes, 400 correct guesses in a row • 1968, 1st congress in Aspen Colorado, field named biofeedback • “Alpha training” adopted by counterculture and practitioners oversold its claims From Kamiya (1978) Science paper

5. In 1960s Mercury astronauts claimed they saw natives waving at them when they flew over the Pacific. (i.e., they hallucinated) In 1967, Gordon Allies, inventor of amphetamine, was contracted to test toxicity of Mercury capsule rocket fuel with David Fairchild However Allies tested another chemical compound on himself and died before contract over. Fairchild asked Sterman to help finish work. MB Sterman History of SMR biofeedback

6. Then Sterman and Fairchild went on to another study, testing rocket fuel on 50 cats, 10 from Sterman’s previous SMR training study. Inject 100 mg/kg or so of fuel into each cat After one hour, all usually go into grand mal but not all - 7 delayed, 3 not at all. seizure thresholds changed in these 10 Not explainable by placebo (“i shall please” in Latin) as cats didn’t know what to expect, and experimenter blind because effect was entirely unexpected History of SMR biofeedback

7. When monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer come in contact, they ignite automatically( i.e., no spark required) in absence of oxygen Mono-methyl hydrazine

8. Sterman was studying EEG-behavioral correlates in cats

9. If EEG behavior is like any other behavior, it could be shaped with operant conditioning • Two prominent rhythms in cat EEG – SMR and PRS • Couldn’t train PRS, but could train SMR

10. Operant Conditioning Increasing probability of rewarded actions

11. 10 cats trained to produce SMR (12-19 Hz over motor strip) for chicken broth & milk

12. Classic abundance response at extinction

13. History of SMR biofeedback • Sterman and Fairchild tested NASA’s rocket fuel on 50 cats, 10 from Sterman’s previous SMR training study. • Inject same mg/kg of fuel into each cat • Cats show usual toxic prodromeAfter 1 hr, all usually go into grand mal • Of 50, 7 cats showed prodrome with delayed seizures and 3 without seizing. • Examining his data carefully, including who made up his sample, he realized the seizure thresholds changed in cats who underwent SMR training • Not explainable by placebo (“I shall please” in Latin) as cats didn’t know what to expect, and experimenter blind because effect was unexpected

14. Sterman et al (1967) showing usual toxic prodrome and resistance to MMH-induced seizures in a subgroup Time Avg 2 hours+ for seizures with EEG trained cats vs. 1 hour for normal cats NASA Rocket fuel

15. History of SMR biofeedback • Replicated in monkeys • Onto humans at colleagues’ urging. • n=1, epileptic case in EEG & Clin Neurophysiology • n=4, 65% seizure reduction (Epilepsia 1976) • n=8, ABA 3-year study, (Epilepsia 1978) • NIH-funded study • Sham control, n=24, 3yrs • Double yoked • n=8, n=8 NF, n=8 log books • Many went seizure free who received NF • Reliable increase in sleep spindle density and decreased awakenings * ** ** Lantz & Sterman, Epilepsia, 1988; Sterman & Lantz, JNT, 2001 60% reduction in seizures 12 mo after training

16. Improved functioning with SMR training (C3) • Sterman, MB (2000). Basic Concepts and Clinical Findings in the Treatment of Seizure Disorders with EEG Operant Conditioning. • Clinical EEG, 31(1), 45-55.

17. Why does SMR training work? Sterman & Bloomfield, 1976

18. How does SMR training work? • Likely enhances GABA circuitry involved in motor regulation, dampens excitability to sensorimotor stimulation • May increase GABAergic receptor density in sensorimotor pathways

19. Epilepsy  ADHD  Beyond Lubar and Bahler (1976) trained epileptics to reduce seizure but noted that a hyperactive epileptic showed decrease in his overactivity after SMR enhancement and theta suppression training • 1967 SMR conditioning in general • 1973 Epilepsy • 1975 Peak Performance • 1976 ADHD • 1977 Addiction • 1978 Anxiety disorders • 1978 Learning disabilities • 1980 Sleep Disorders • 1995 Brain Injury • 1995 Lyme's Disease • 1996 CFS • 1997 Mood disorders Neurofeedback Applications by year of 1st publication Thalamocortical dysrhythmias may underlying a variety of conditions including depression, dysfunction associated with TBI, etc