Chapters 26 and 27

Chapters 26 and 27 Comparison of Adjectives Comparison of Adverbs The Subjunctive in English The Present Subjunctive (including sum) Independent Uses of the Subjunctive The Perfect Subjunctive (including sum)

1. Comparison of Adjectives In English, we form the comparative by adding the suffix “-er” or the word “more,” and the superlative by adding the suffix “-est” or the word most.

1. Comparison of Adjectives In Latin, there is only one way to form the comparative and superlative! -comparative: add –ior, -ius to the stem dign- + -ior = dignior (m. + f) dign- + -ius = dignius (n.) -superlative: add –issim- to the stem, add –us, -a, -um (1st and 2nd declension endings dign- + -issim- + -us = dignissimus, -a, -um

1. Comparison of Adjectives Comparatives decline like third-declension nouns: so you get abl. sing. in –e, not -ī, and gen. pl. in –um, not īum like in third-declension adjectives Superlatives (-issimus, -a, -um) you already know how to decline!

1. Comparison of Adjectives In Latin, you can compare two items in two ways: • Using quam (than): quam links the two items being compared; both items are in the same case ex. illafortiorest quam ille, she is braver than he is ex. Sapientioremvirum quam tēcognōvī, I knew a man wiser than you are • Using the ablative of comparison: if the first item is in the nominative or the accusative, you can leave out quam and put the second item in the ablative: ex. illafortiorestillõ, she is braver than he is ex. sapientoremvirumillōcognovī, I knew a man wiser than that other guy

1. Comparison of Adjectives As usual, there are exceptionsin forming the superlative: -adjectives in –er add –rimus, -a, -um to the positive stem -four adjectives in –lis (facilis, difficilis, dis/similis) add –limus, -a, -um *the comparatives are formed in the regular way!

1. Comparison of Adjectives As usual, there are irregular comparatives and superlatives! Notice that the words are often (not always) the same words that have irregular forms in English!

1. One More Thing… plūs, plūrisbehaves a little differently in the singular and in the plural -in the singular, it is used as a neuter noun and often takes a partitive genitive: ex. plūspecūniae lit. “more of money” -in the plural, it is an adjective and must agree with its noun ex. plūresamīcī “more friends”

2. Comparison of Adverbs -comparative: add –ius to the adjective stem cit- + -ius = citius alt- + -ius = altius fort- + -ius = fortius -superlative: add –ē to the superlative form of the adjective dign- + -issim- + -ē = dignissimē

2. Comparison of Adverbs As usual, there are irregular comparatives and superlatives! Notice that the words are often (not always) the same words that have irregular forms in English! quam + superlative adverb = as ___________ as possible “quam celerrimē,” as quickly as possible

3. The Subjunctive in English

3. The Subjunctive in English So far, you’ve been making statements in the indicative about reality and facts, or events that are certainly going to happen. It is raining. I like rain. It is going to rain. It rained all night. But what about all the things we say that do not refer to facts, actual events, reality, or that refer to events or situations that are contingent on other events/situations/conditions??? I wish it would stop raining! If it were going to rain, it would have started by now. What should we do if it rains? To talk about these (and other) types of unreal or contingent situations, Latin uses the subjunctive mood.

3. The Subjunctive in English English actually has a subjunctive too! What are the situations expressed in the following sentences: “I would not do that if I were you!” “She looked as if she had seen a ghost.” “If I might be so bold….” “I could have wished that you had gotten here earlier.” “The pirates eat Brussels sprouts in order that they not get scurvy.”

4. The Present Subjunctive The sign of the subjunctive is an -a- Except in the first conjugation, which already has an –a- in the indicative: instead it switches to –e-

4. The Present Subjunctive… Remember: We beat a liar

4. …Including sum sum in the present subjunctive is regular! The subjunctive is signaled by an -ī-

5. Uses of the Subjunctive: Independent • Certain types of sentences in Latin use a subjunctive main verb—this is called an independent use of the subjunctive. • The main types of independent subjunctives are: • Hortatory (1stpl)/Jussive (3rdpl): urging or demanding an action • ex. “Let’s go to the mall.” • ex. “Let them eat cake!” • Optative: wishing for something (“if only,” “would that,” “may…,”) • ex. “If I only had a brain.” • ex. “Would that I were low laid in my grave.” • Deliberative: asking advice, expressing surprise, expressing doubt • ex. “What should we eat?” • ex. “Who would have thought?”

5. Uses of the Subjunctive: Independent The hortatory or jussive subjunctive urges or demands an action ex. “Let’s go to the mall.” ex. “Let them eat cake!” In Latin, a hortatory subjunctive is used for the first person (usually) plural (let’s….). A jussive subjunctive is used for third person (let him…, let them….). ex. hōslatrōnēsinterficiāmus, let us kill these robbers. (hortatory) ex. omēscivēsveniant, let all the citizens come. (jussive) Instead of nōn, these subjunctives use nēfor a negative. ex. ālēgibusnērecēdāmus, let us not abandon the laws ex. nēdomumredeat, let him not return home.

5. Uses of the Subjunctive: Independent • The optative subjunctive expresses a wish • ex. “If I only had a brain.” • ex. “Would that I were low laid in my grave.” • Optative subjunctives are often accompanied by the word utinam. • ex. utinamfugiathostēs, (I hope/if only/would that) he escapes the enemy! • ex. sintincolumēs, May they be safe!/Would that they are safe! • The negative is nē. • ex. nēvivam, sīsciō, May I not live, if I know • ex. nēillepereat, Wouldthat he not die!

5. Uses of the Subjunctive: Independent The deliberative subjunctive can ask advice, or sometimes, can behave more like a rhetorical question or an exclamation expressing doubt or disbelief ex. “What should we eat?” ex. “Who would have thought?” ex. “Where could he be?” ex. quid agam? quōmēvertam?, what I am to do? To where should I turn? ex. eamsalūtem? Should I greet here? The negative is nōn. ex. an ego nōnveniam?, or should I not come?

6. The Perfect Subjunctive… To form the perfect subjunctive: perfect stem + -eri- + personal endings (-m, -s, -t, -mus, -tis, -nt)

6. …Including sum sum in the perfect subjunctive is regular! The subjunctive is signaled by an -ī-

Chapters 26 and 27