Classroom Assessment A Practical Guide for Educators by Craig A. Mertler

1. Classroom AssessmentA Practical Guide for Educatorsby Craig A. Mertler Chapter 2 Teaching and Assessment: The Instructional Process

2. Introduction • Assessment is an integral part of teaching. • Important relationships exist between assessment and various aspects of teaching. • Understanding how assessment relates to these other aspects of teaching is central to understanding assessment.

3. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Time-Restricted Model” • prevalent at the high school and college levels • assessment occurs only following completion of instruction Begin here 

4. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Time-Restricted Model” (continued) • new material is introduced; teacher demonstrates examples of concepts or procedures; students complete homework activities; next lesson begins with review of previous day’s concepts; new material is then presented; process continues until “unit” is complete, at which time assessment is administered • assumption that instruction is unidirectional… TeacherStudents

5. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Time-Restricted Model” (continued) • advantage: • cost-effective (in terms of time allotted to assessments) • limitations: • assessments are difficult for students since they cover large amounts of material • preparation for these assessments often encourages memorization • no (or limited) opportunities for reteaching material to those experiencing difficulty

6. Formal assessment and summative evaluation occur [Instruction—informal assessment—evaluation cycle continues] Teacher provides instruction Discussion/ feedback (formative evaluation) Informal assessment occurs Additional informal assessment Discussion/feedback (formative evaluation) Further instruction Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Continuous Feedback Model” • based on the principle that most students could master material if provided with additional time to learn • both formative and summative decision making is incorporated in the model Begin here 

7. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Continuous Feedback Model” (continued) • builds on Time-Restricted Model; additional informal assessments and formative evaluation is incorporated • these additional assessments are not included in students’ grades; purpose is to identify errors and misunderstandings • numerous assessments are necessary; these require much planning and forethought on the part of teachers • teachers must be flexible and must build in time for reteaching

8. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Continuous Feedback Model” (continued) • advantages: • potential for noticeable gains in student achievement • potential for reduction in test (assessment) anxiety • helps students learn more and better; discourages memorization • limitations: • time must be spent developing assessment and intervention strategies • some students may not be ready to move on when others are

9. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Integrated Assessment Model” • based on the principle that instruction should focus on meaningful learning and thinking • students are taught how to think and apply what they have learned

10. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Integrated Assessment Model” (continued) • defines a different role for the teacher—a guide for students and a facilitator of learning • necessitates a reduction in large-group instruction • also defines different roles for the students—greater collaborative work (in pairs or small groups) • students also assume greater responsibility for their own learning and application of that learning • assessment also changes—focus is now on application and problem solving • assessment is an ongoing entity throughout the entire process

11. Models Connecting Assessment with Teaching • The “Integrated Assessment Model” (continued) • advantages: • increased potential for gains in student achievement, solidified understanding, etc. • student learning becomes more meaningful • limitations: • requires development of new skills on the part of teachers • inservice training is often necessary

12. The Instructional Process • The Instructional Process • consists of three basic stages, which are integrated throughout the entire process: • planning for instruction • delivering instruction • assessing instruction Planning instruction Delivering instruction Assessing instruction

13. The Instructional Process • The Instructional Process (continued) • assessment and decision making are required at each step of the process, as they guide actions taken at the other steps • All three components in The Instructional Process must be parallel with one another.

14. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction • numerous decisions must be made prior to actual instruction (textbook, content, supplements, pace of instruction, types of assessments, etc.) • instruction is not a spontaneous activity • good preparation helps teachers feel comfortable with the material, as well as with other tasks of teaching • provides a sense of ownership over the act of teaching

15. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Unit plan: • most basic, essential type of planning • consists of an outline or overview of a large section of content material (more specific planning follows in the form of weekly and daily lesson plans) • reduces uncertainty and anxiety • provides opportunities for teachers to review material and activities prior to instruction • provides framework to guide actual instruction

16. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Lesson plan: • weekly lesson plan—provides an overview of instruction for each day in a given subject, course, or class period; includes instructional objectives • daily lesson plan—guides the specifics of actual instruction; permits teachers to visualize themselves actually teaching the plans they are attempting to develop, anticipates any problems, and addresses them prior to delivering instruction

17. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Guidelines for developing lesson plans: • There is no single way (i.e., one “correct” format) to write a lesson plan. • Even though they are detailed, lesson plans are not written in stone and do allow for flexibility. • Even if you believe that you can remember what you are going to teach, lesson plans should be an integral part of the teaching process for every teacher. • Formal lesson planning does not stifle the creative process. • Sample lesson plans…

18. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Curriculum guides: • provide guidance to teachers with respect to “scope and sequence,” instructional activities, and expected levels of student achievement • developed at the state or district level • also known as curriculum frameworks or courses of study

19. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Instructional objectives: statements that clearly describe what students are expected to learn or be able to do following instruction. • extremely important component of lesson plans • three domains of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives: • cognitive domain • affective domain • psychomotor domain

20. Evaluation Synthesis Analysis Application Comprehension Knowledge The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Cognitive domain: six levels that represent a hierarchy of thinking skills. higher-level thinking skills lower-level thinking skills

21. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Writing instructional objectives • purpose is to focus instruction on behaviors that students should be able to exhibit or perform (objective begins with a stem such as “The student will…” or “The learner can…”) • must focus on observable and measurable student characteristics or behaviors (think, know, and understand are not observable)

22. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Writing instructional objectives(continued) • three essential components: • the stem • action verb • specific content, skill, or behavior The student will compare and contrast the circulatory system of vertebrates to that of invertebrates.

23. The Instructional Process • Planning Instruction (continued) • Teacher-made vs. publisher-developed materials • many educational resources available (textbooks, Internet, teacher’s guides, supplemental materials, etc.) • do not rely solely on these materials • may result in a misalignment between planning, delivering, and assessing instruction

24. The Instructional Process • Delivering Instruction • Two important tasks for teachers once instruction has begun: • deliver the instruction as planned • constantly assess and evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction; alter when necessary

25. The Instructional Process • Assessing Instruction • Formative evaluations • occur during instruction • typically result from informal assessments (more spontaneous) • purpose is to determine what adjustments need to be made to instruction in order to be more effective

26. The Instructional Process • Assessing Instruction (continued) • Summative evaluations • occur after instruction • result from more formal assessments (planned in advance of their administration) • results are typically used to assign grades to student performance • can also be used as a final measure of overall effectiveness of instruction