Chapter 13: Human and Artificial Intelligence

1. Chapter 13: Human and Artificial Intelligence

2. What Do You Consider Intelligence?

3. Intelligence Is… • Capacity to learn from experience • Ability to adapt to different contexts • The use of metacognition to enhance learning

4. Implicit Theory of Intelligence • Unstated conceptions of intelligence • Note different meanings in different contexts • Influenced by culture

5. Emotional Intelligence • Mayer & Salovey (1997) “The capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth”

6. Social Intelligence • Ability to get along with others • Knowledge of social matters • Insight into moods or underlying personality traits of others

7. Cultural Intelligence • CQ • Person’s ability to adapt in diverse cultures

8. Artificial Intelligence • The computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world

9. Historical Trends • Emphasize psychophysical abilities • Galton • Examine relationships of sensory abilities • Emphasize on judgment • Binet (1904) • Identify children needing special instruction • Compared child’s abilities to what the average child at that age could do

10. Historical Trends • Terman (1900s) • Created an English version of Binet’s test (called it the Stanford-Binet) • Created the intelligence quotient (IQ): divide mental age by chronological age then multiply by 100 • Became the first modern “intelligence” test

11. Types of items on the Stanford-Binet

12. Wechsler Intelligence Scales • Wechsler created scales for adults, children, and preschoolers • Yield 3 scores • Verbal score • Performance score • Overall score • Most widely used intelligence test

13. Types of Items on the Wechsler

14. Measurement or Process? • Measurement structure • Identify most relevant factors • Process emphasis • Identify and examine the speed and accuracy of mental manipulations

15. Nature, Nurture, or Both? • Is intelligence genetic? • Is intelligence acquired? • Is intelligence a combination of both?

16. Factor Analysis • Primary method used to describe intelligence structure • Correlations among many dependent variables are examined with the goal of discovering something about the nature of the factors that affect them • How many different factors are needed to explain the pattern of relationships among these variables?

17. Factor Analysis Matrix

18. Number of Factors in the Structure of Intelligence • Spearman says two • Thurstone says seven • Guilford says 150 • Cattell, Vernon, and Carroll propose hierarchical models

19. Spearman’s “g” Factor • Two-factor theory of intelligence • All intellective functioning was due to an overall mental ability – “g” • Accompanied by specific abilities for differing mental tasks

20. Thurstone’s 7 Primary Mental Abilities • Verbal comprehension • Verbal fluency • Inductive reasoning • Spatial visualization • Number • Memory • Perceptual speed

21. Guilford • SOI Model • Structure of Intelligence • Each cube represents an intersection of operations, products and contents to create 150 components of intelligence

22. Cattell’s Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence • Fluid intelligence • Ability to reason and use information • Peaks approximately at age 20 • Crystallized intelligence • Acquired skill and learned knowledge • Continues to increase into old age

23. Carroll’s Three-Strata Model Stratum III: General g Stratum II: Broad abilities fluid Auditory perception retrieval Cognitive speed Processing speed crystalized memory Visual perception Stratum I: Narrow abilities Listening Perceptual speed Word fluency Word recognition

24. Historical Trends & Intelligence • In the past, focus was on the product, identify aptitudes, measure, and create models based on data • 1960’s & 1970’s conceptualization changed • What are the processes involved? • Information processing models focus on the processes that are involved in intelligence

25. Information Processing & Intelligence • Inspection time • How long a stimuli has to be viewed before an accurate judgment can be made • How quickly a person gives their answer is irrelevant, participants are encouraged to take their time

26. Inspection Time Demonstration *

27. Inspection Time and IQ • Nettlebeck & Lally (1976) • First to note the relationship • Nettlebeck (1987) • Inspection time accounts for 25% of IQ variance (r = -.5) • The higher the IQ, the less stimulus time needed to accurately inspect the stimuli • Big issue now is direction of causation between the two variables

28. Intelligence and Other Processes • The speed at which we process thought can explain why one individual is more intelligent than another • Choice Reaction Time • Jensen • Lexical Access Speed • Hunt • Speed of word retrieval

29. Working Memory & Intelligence • Being able to store and manipulate information in working memory is related to level of intelligence

30. Componential Analysis • This approach involves identifying the steps in complex information-processing tasks and seeing how each process contributes to the decision • Sternberg’s componential analysis on solving analogies Red : Stop :: Green : ____ Graceful: Clumsy :: Late : _____ • Encode - Identify each term of the problem • Inference - Discover rule between 1st two terms • Mapping - Map rule to second set of terms • Application - Apply relationship and generate final term

31. Sternberg’s Findings • Measured amount of reaction time for each step • Found more intelligent participants took longer to encode, but less time to complete the remaining steps • Global versus local planning

32. Contextualist View of Intelligence • Culture and definition of intelligence are intertwined • Differs from one culture to another • Critical in one culture may be unimportant in another culture • Measurement of intelligence will be influenced by culture

33. Culture Differences • Western cultures view intelligence as a means for individuals to devise categories and to engage in rational debate • Eastern cultures see it as a way for members of a community to recognize contradiction and complexity and to play their social roles successfully

34. Evidence Supporting Cultural Influences • Kpelle tribe in Africa • Prefer functional sorting • In Western society, seen as less intelligent • Westerners prefer hierarchical sorting • Italian Americans’ IQ study • First generation median = 87 • Ceci (1996) Italian Americans scores were slightly above average (above 100) • Cultural assimilation is the explanation

35. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences • Eight types of abilities that are independent of one another • Visual / Spatial Intelligence • Musical Intelligence • Verbal Intelligence • Logical/Mathematical Intelligence • Interpersonal Intelligence • Intrapersonal Intelligence • Bodily / Kinesthetic Intelligence • Naturalist Intelligence

36. Gardner’s Theory • Is modular, each type is independent of another • Allows for existence of savants

37. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory • Emphasizes how 3 types of abilities work together to create intelligent behavior Triarchic Theory Analytical Compare, Evaluate & Analyze Creative Insights, Synthesis, Adapting in unique situations Practical Dealing with Everyday tasks Relating to world

38. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory • Intelligence involves not merely adapting to one’s environment but in some cases modifying the environment or selecting another • Intelligences are developing abilities, not fixed characteristics, of an individual; Traditional definitions conceptualize intelligence to remain essentially constant throughout an adult life • Intelligence means adapting using your strengths and improving or compensating for your weaknesses

39. Improving Intelligence • Head Start programs • Enriched home enviroment • Abecedarian Project • Integration leads to equalization

40. Malleability of Intelligence • Impact of belief on Intelligence • Blackwell, Trzesniewski & Dweck (2007) • If one believes intelligence is malleable, more likely to improve in ability than one who believes that intelligence is fixed

41. Development of Intelligence in Adults • Not all cognitive skills decline with age • STM performance declines • LTM and recognition memory does not

42. Is there Evidence for Age Decline? • Perhaps it is not age per se, but specific disorders which cause the decline • Age effects are confounded by disorders • Frequent use of cross-sectional designs tends to overestimate age effects

43. Is there Evidence for Age Decline? • Consensus on slowing of speed with age

44. Age and Wisdom • Insight into human development and life matters

45. Artificial Intelligence • The Turing test • Used to refer to a proposal made by Turing (1950) as a way of dealing with the question whether machines can think • Can an observer who has a conversation with a computer and a human figure out which conversationalist is the computer? • Computer passes Turing test if the person cannot

46. Computer Programs Better than Humans • Deep Blue and Chess • 1,000,000,000,000 positions/sec • 100 - 200 billion moves considered • Able to evaluate moves • Beat world champion Kasparov in 1997 match

47. Psychotherapy AI • ELIZA • Weizenbaum (1966) created this program to engage in a dialogue imitative of the style favored in Rogerian psychotherapy • The program can successfully emulate human conversation to a degree that humans often assumed they were communicating remotely over teletype with another human • ELIZA's technique of responding to keyword-matching demonstrated the plausibility of natural language understanding by computers • PARRY • Colby (1963) created a computer simulation of a paranoid human • Psychologists reliably judged PARRY's interactive output as being paranoid schizophrenic and were unable to distinguish transcripts of a session with PARRY from that of a session originating from a human patient

48. Expert Systems • Telephone network maintenance • Credit evaluation • Tax planning • Detection of insider securities trading • Mineral exploration • Irrigation and pest management • Predicting failure of diesel engines • Medical diagnosis • Class selection for students

49. Limitations of Expert Systems • Can handle only narrow domains • Do not possess common sense/intuition • Have a limited ability to learn

50. Summary • To date, no computer AI can match all dimensions of human intelligence • For algorithmic problems, computers can perform faster, however humans still write the programming