Announcements

1. Announcements • U6 Schedule: • Tuesday, 3/18 and Thursday, 3/20: Lecture • Tuesday, 3/25: Exam

2. U6: Motivating Operations • This unit focuses exclusively on Motivating Operations and some applied implications of motivating operations • To date, when dealing with operant relations, I have dealt with only the “three-term contingency:” SD:R--->SR/Sr or S∆:R-->Ext • In this unit, I am adding a “fourth term” to the contingency - the motivating variable: MO:SD:R--->SR/Sr or MO:S∆:R-->Ext • Or, in its simplest form: MO:R--->Sc (some operant relations do not have SDs or S∆s)

3. U6: Motivating Operations: Introduction • Motivating Operations are the way we deal with “motivation” in behavior analysis • Many people outside the field criticize behavior analysis because we do not deal with “motivation;” rather, we are said to analyze behavior only in terms of consequences. • Not so, but the criticism is understandable, because many in the field did, indeed, ignore this very important topic for many, many years, and did recommend altering behavior exclusively by changing consequences and SDs/S∆s.

4. MOs: Introduction, cont. • Around 1980, Michael introduced the term “establishing operations” to deal with the concept of motivation from a behavioral perspective, and it has now become a widely recognized and important topic (Skinner did deal with motivation, but only in terms of deprivation, satiation, or pre-existing aversive stimulation; he did not have a general term to cover all the variables that have motivating effects) • In 2003, Laraway, Snycerski, Poling & Michael published an article that changed the terminology - that new terminology is more logical and has been adopted • Establishing Operations = Motivating Operations • Vollmer & Iwata in their article use the term EO because the paper was published before this revision in terms

5. Most Difficult Unit: Why? First reason: • The concept is difficult because we often talk about motivation from a “lay” perspective rather than from a scientific perspective • So, you need to learn to talk about it very differently than the way you have no doubt talked about it in the past • Behavior analysts are environmentalists; that is, we look to the environment for causes for behaviors, rather than looking inside the individual so we must talk about motivation the same way - that is, from an environmental, objective perspective

6. Second Reason Why MOs are Difficult • In order to understand the effects that motivating operations have on behavior you must first clearly understand: • What reinforcers are and how they affect behavior • What SDs and S∆s are and how they affect behavior • The difference between SDs/S∆s and consequences • Sequencing of material in this class (consequences, then SDs/S∆s, then multiple effects of stimuli)

7. Michael vs. Malott Terminology • I am using and adopting Michael’s terminology • Malott, in PSY 1400, uses different terminology • You must learn the terminology I am using (Michael’s) • Malott has simplified the concept/definition in order to make it easier to learn, but I think that simplification causes confusion • It is a hard concept to understand, yet essential for understanding behavior; there is no easy way out! (Michael vs. Malott on phone)

8. Introduction to Motivation • In common-sense psychology what a person does is a function of two factors: • knowledge and motivation • For any behavior to occur, a person must know how to do it, and also must want to do it • In traditional psychology wanting to do something has always been defined and discussed as motivation

9. Introduction cont. • Skinner talked about motivation in terms of three types of variables • deprivation, satiation, and pre-existing or antecedent aversive stimulation • Examples • Food deprivation makes a person “want” food • Water satiation makes a person “want” water less • Intense heat or noise makes a person “want” to get rid of the heat or loud noise (pre-existing aversive stimulation) • The above are all environmental variables that precede behavior and affect what a person will do at that particular moment in time; that is, when they are “hungry,” “not thirsty,” or “too hot.”

10. SO 1: The role of MOs in the development of an Sr • To date: NS/SR (repeated pairings) NS will become an Sr • However, that is not the complete “story.” • The appropriate MO for the SR with which the NS is paired must be present when the pairing takes place

11. Example: MO must be presentMaking a click into an Sr for a dog (SO 1) NS (click)/ SR (food) NS (click) will become an Sr MO(Food deprivation): (must be present, must be MO for food) SO 2: Why must the relevant MO be present when the pairing takes place? Otherwise: NS (click)/ NS (food) Why? Food is not a reinforcer if the organism is not food deprived! (note: the MO must be the MO for the SR or Sr: water, then dep; if praise, then “attention dep.”)

12. SO 3: Diagram the role of the MO with respect to the effectiveness of an Sr (testing the Sr) • Not only must the MO for the SR be present when the NS is paired with the SR, but it must be present in order for the Sr to function as a reinforcer MO (food deprivation): R (any response) ---> Sr (click) If the response increases in frequency in the future you know the click has become an Sr • Note: the MO of food deprivation must be present for the click to function as a reinforcer. Essentially, the food deprivation becomes the MO for the click. (should look familiar, not logical, click for note)

13. SO 4: State the names of the two main effects that MOs have and be able to describe each • MOs have the following two simultaneous effects: • Value Altering Effect: They alter the reinforcing value of a consequence. That is, they make a consequence more or less reinforcing. (nothing to do with behavior) • Behavior Altering Effect: They immediately evoke or suppress behaviors that have resulted in the consequence in the past • In other words: MOs • make an individual “want” or “not want” a consequence - in unacceptable lay terms- and • immediately increase or decrease the frequency/likelihood of the response that produced that consequence in the past. (actually, I am going to talk about 4 effects)

14. SO 4: Examples of the cojoint effects of MOsValue Altering and Behavior Altering Effects Examples of MOs that make a consequence more reinforcingand immediately evoke behaviors: • Food deprivation (1) makes food more reinforcing and (2) immediately evokes behaviors that have, in the past, been reinforced with food (e.g., going to the refrig; asking for food). • Being too cold (1) makes warmth more reinforcing and (2) immediately evokes behaviors that have, in the past, been reinforced with warmth (e.g., putting on a jacket).

15. SO 4: More Examples of the cojoint effects of MosValue Altering and Behavior Altering Effects Examples of MOs that make a consequence less reinforcingand immediately suppress behaviors: • Food satiation (1) makes food less reinforcing and (2) immediately suppresses behaviors that have, in the past, been reinforced with food (e.g., going to the refrig; asking for food). • Being too warm (1) makes warmth less reinforcing and (2) immediately suppresses behaviors that have, in the past, been reinforced with warmth (e.g., suppresses putting on a jacket).

16. SO 4: Main effects of MOs cont. • MOs can make consequences more or less reinforcing • Value Altering Effect • More reinforcing: Reinforcer Establishing Effect • Less reinforcing: Reinforcer Abolishing Effect • MOs can immediately evoke or suppress behavior that has preceded the relevant reinforcer in the past • Behavior Altering Effect • Evoke behavior: Evocative Effect • Suppress behavior: Abative Effect (descriptiveness of terms)

17. SO 5: Examples from Table 2 of MOs that have a ReinforcerEstablishing Effect and an Evocative Effect • Sleep deprivation (1) makes sleep more reinforcing, and (2) evokes behaviors that have, in the past, led to sleep (getting into bed, turning off lights, turning off your cell, etc.) • Being too warm (1) makes becoming cooler reinforcing, and (2) evokes behaviors that have, in the past, led to becoming cooler (taking off a sweater, opening a window). • Pain increase (1) makes a decrease in pain more reinforcing, and (2) evokes behaviors that have, in the past, terminated pain (taking an aspirin). (learn all of the ones in the table, blood loss and salt ingestion; sleep as a physiological state, not a behavior)

18. SO 6: Examples from Table 3 of MOs that have a Reinforcer Abolishing Effect and an Abative Effect • Being too cold (1) makes becoming cooler less reinforcing, and (2) suppresses behaviors that have, in the past, led to becoming cooler. • Sleep satiation (1) makes sleep less reinforcing, and (2) suppresses behaviors that have, in the past, led to sleep. • Pain decrease (1) makes a decrease in pain less reinforcing, and (2) suppresses behaviors that have, in the past, terminated pain. (just like satiation!)

19. SOs 5 & 6: For the exam, be able to answer the following types of questions: • What is the reinforcerestablishing effect of being too warm? • What is the evocative effect of an increase in pain? • What is the reinforcerabolishing effect of sleep? • What is the abative effect of activity? (Let’s look at examples - then I will come back to these questions; activity as a physiological state/condition, not a behavior)

20. SOs 5 & 6: Examples and explanation • Food deprivation • Time 1 (in past) MO (food dep): R (going to refrig)-->SR (food) • Time 2 (in present) MO (food dep): Food deprivation will: • Make food more reinforcing (the reinforcer establishing effect) • Immediately evoke going to the refrigerator (the evocative effect)

21. SOs 5 & 6 Examples and explanation • Food satiation (same Time 1 situation) • Time 1 (in past) MO (food dep): R (going to refrig)-->SR (food) • Time 2 (in present) MO (food satiation, just eaten a BIG meal): Food satiation will: • Make food less reinforcing (the reinforcer abolishing effect) • Immediately suppress going to the refrigerator (the abative effect)

22. SOs 5 & 6: Examples and explanation • Pain increase • Time 1 (in past) MO (pain/burn): R (put ice on)-->SR (dec. pain) • Time 2 (in present) MO (pain/burn): Pain/burn: • Makes a decrease in pain more reinforcing (the reinforcer establishing effect) • Immediately evokes putting ice on burn (the evocative effect)

23. SOs 5 & 6: Examples and explanation • Pain decrease (same Time 1 as before) • Time 1 (in past) MO (pain/burn): R (put ice on)-->SR (dec. pain) • Time 2 (in present) MO (decrease/termination in pain/burn): Pain/burn decrease: • Makes a decrease in pain less reinforcing (the reinforcer abolishing effect) • Immediately suppresses putting ice on burn (the abative effect)

24. SOs 5 & 6: Sample exam questions on the Value Altering Effect • What is the reinforcerestablishing effect of being too cold? • What is the reinforcerestablishing effect of a sudden increase in bright sunshine? • What is the reinforcerabolishing effect of being too cold? • What is the reinforcerabolishing effect of activity? NOTE CAREFULLY: It is the consequence that becomes more or less reinforcing, NOT THE BEHAVIOR. Behaviors cannot become more or less reinforcing!! (not talking about activity as a behavior here)

25. SOs 5 & 6: Exam questions on the Behavior Altering Effect • What is the evocative effect of being too cold? • What is the evocative effect of a sudden increase in bright sunshine? • What is the abative effect of being too cold? • What is the abative effect of sleep satiation? NOTE CAREFULLY: It is not correct to say that the abative effect “increases not eating (food sat) or not taking off a sweater (becoming too cold).” Why isn’t it correct??

26. SO 7: Why are MOs often confused with SDs? How are they similar? How do they differ? • How are they similar? • They both precede behavior • They both evoke operant behavior (but for very different reasons) • How do they differ? • SDs are correlated with the differential availability of a reinforcer • MOs are correlated with the differential effectiveness of a reinforcer (that is, the extent to which the consequence is “reinforcing” at that moment in time)

27. SO 7: SDs vs. MOs, Differential availability vs. differential effectiveness of the consequence (diagrams in article) Rat example: • MO: (food dep): SD (light on): R (press lever)--> SR (food) • MO: (food dep): S∆ (light off): R (press lever)-->Ext (no fd) Food is reinforcing, but only available when SD is present • MO (food dep): SD (light on): R (press lever)--> SR (food) • MO (food sat): SD (light on): R (press lever)--> Food, but not SR Food is available, but only reinforcing when food dep.

28. Human example (sometimes confusing because of verbal beh): SO 7: SDs vs. MOs, cont. • MO (food dep): SD (Good Food Here!): R (walk in store)--> SR (food) • MO (food dep): S∆ (hardware store): R (walk in store)-->Ext (no food) Food is reinforcing, but only available when SD is present • MO (food dep): SD (Good Food Here!): R (walk in store)--> SR (food) • MO (food sat): SD (Good Food Here!): R (walk in store)--> Food, but not SR Food is available, but only reinforcing when food dep.

29. SO 8: Srs that can be affected by food deprivation and food satiation • Value Altering Effect of an MO: (review) • The MO makes a consequence more or less reinforcing • Not only does the MO affect how reinforcing SRs are, it also affects how reinforcing all Srs (conditioned reinforcers) are that have been repeatedly paired with the SR in the past.

30. SO 8: Srs that can be affected by food deprivation and satiation • Conditioned Reinforcer Value Altering Effect of an MO • Conceptually, this effect is subsumed under the value altering effect, but I am separating it out to make sure you understand that MOs also affect the reinforcing value of Srs that have been paired with the relevant SR • Thus, food deprivation would not only make food more reinforcing it would also make the following Srs more reinforcing: • Sight and smell of food • Pictures of food • The word “food” • The sight of the refrigerator • Alternatively, food satiation would make all of the above Srs less reinforcing

31. SO 8: Srs that can be affected by other MOs • What is a possible Sr that could be affected by water deprivation and satiation? • How would that Sr be affected by deprivation? • How would that Sr be affected by satiation? • What is a possible Sr that could be affected by being too cold? • How would that Sr be affected? • What is a possible Sr that could be affected by pain from a burn (hot stove)? • How would that Sr be affected?

32. SO 9A:ConditionedReinforcer Establishing Effect and the Behavior it Influences Rat example (Time 1 training) MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR Food dep pull chain light on press lever Food Time 2: MO (Food deprivation): • The food deprivation will immediately make the light on more reinforcing and… • Because the light is more reinforcing, pulling the chain will increase in the future (at time 3) (why slide next)

33. SO 9A:ConditionedReinforcer Establishing Effect and the Behavior it Influences WHY will pulling the chain increase in the future? Time 2: Rat completes the chain MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR Food dep pull chain light on press lever Food • Because the light was more reinforcing it will increase the frequency of chain pulling in the future when food deprivation is again present at Time 3. Time 3: MO (Food deprivation): R of pulling chain

34. SO 9B:ConditionedReinforcer Abolishing Effect and the Behavior that is Influenced Rat example (Time 1 training - same as before) MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR Food dep pull chain light on press lever Food Time 2: MO (Food satiation) 1. What is the conditioned reinforcer abolishing effect that food satiation would have? (behavior that will be affected – next slide)

35. SO 9B:ConditionedReinforcer Abolishing Effect and the Behavior it Influences Time 2: Assume the rat makes a “mistake” and completes the chain anyway: MO (Food satiation): R  Sr/SD: R  SR pull chain light on press lever Fd 2. What behavior is going to be affected by the conditioned reinforcer abolishing effect and how? (why #2, next slide)

36. SO 9B:ConditionedReinforcer Abolishing Effect and the Behavior it Influences Time 2: Rat makes a “mistake” and pulls chain anyway: MO (Food satiation): R  Sr/SD: R  SR pull chain light on press lever Fd Because the light on is not reinforcing at the moment due to the food satiation, puling the chain will decrease or at least not increase at Time 3 when the rat is again food satiated: Time 3: MO (Food satiation): R of pulling chain

37. SO 9A:Human Example Time 1 MO: R ---> Sr/SD: R ---> SR headache look on counter sight of advil take advil dec. pain Time 2: MO (headache) • What is the conditionedreinforcer establishing effect that the pain from the headache would have? • What behavior would be affected by this effect and how?

38. SO 9B: Conditioned Reinforcer Abolishing Effect Time 1: same as before MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR headache look on counter sight of advil take advil dec. pain Time 2: MO (no headache) • What is the conditionedreinforcer abolishing effect that no headache would have? • What behavior would be affected by this and how? (assume the person looks at the counter, perhaps while washing his/her face or brushing his/her teeth)

39. SO 10: SD Evocative and Abative Effect (SD Behavior Altering Effect) • Behavior Altering Effect of MOs (review): • MOs immediately evoke or suppress behaviors that have, in the past, resulted in the relevant consequence • This effect is relevant for operant relations that do not have SDs and S∆s • MO (food dep): R (press lever)--> SR (food) • In these operant relations, the MO directly evokes or suppresses the response • However, in operant relations that do have SDs/S∆s, the MO affects the effectiveness of the SD/S∆, which then affects (evokes or suppresses) the behavior

40. SO 10A: SD Evocative Effect, cont. MO (food dep): R (pull chain)-->Sr/SD (light on): R press lever-->SR (food) MO (food dep): • The food deprivation would directly evoke the response of pulling the chain (the evocative effect - note there is no SD for pulling the chain) • But also increase the effectiveness of the light on as an SD, that is make it function effectively as an SD (the SD evocative effect) when the rat got to that point in the chain • The light on would then be more likely to evoke the lever press (because the light on is now an “effective” or “potent” SD)

41. SO 10A:SD Evocative Effect Rat example (Time 1 training) MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR Food dep pull chain light on press lever Food Time 2: MO (Food deprivation): R (pull chain)--->Sr/SD (light) • 1. The food deprivation would make the light on an effective SD, and thus, at this point in the chain, and at that very moment in time • 2. The light on would evoke the lever press.

42. SO 10B:SD Abative Effect Rat example (Time 1 training: same as before) MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR Food dep pull chain light on press lever Food Time 2: MO (Food satiation): R (pull chain)--->Sr/SD (light) 1. The food satiation would decrease the effectiveness of the light on as an SD, and thus, at this point in the chain, and this very moment in time (assume the rat pulled the chain, which may happen) 2. The light on would be less likely to evoke the lever press.

43. SO 10:SD Evocative Effect: Human Example Time 1 MO: R ---> Sr/SD: R ---> SR headache look on counter sight of advil take advil dec. pain Time 2: MO (headache): R---> Sr/SD: look on counter sight of advil • 1. What is the SD evocative effect that the pain from the headache would have? • 2. What behavior would be affected and how?

44. SO 10:SD Abative Effect: Human Example Time 1 MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR headache look on counter sight of advil take advil dec. pain Time 2: MO (no headache): R ---> Sr/SD look on counter sight of advil • 1. What is the SD abative effect that no headache would have? • 2. What behavior would be affected and how?

45. SO 11:Four effects of MOs Time 1 MO: R ---> Sr/SD: R ---> SR headache look on counter sight of advil take advil dec. pain Time 2: MO (headache) What is the reinforcer establishing effect of the headache? What is the evocative effect of the headache? A. What is the conditioned reinforcer establishing effect? B. What behavior is affected and how? A. What is the SD evocative effect? B. What behavior is affected and how?

46. SO 11:Four effects of MOs, cont. Time 1 MO: R ---> Sr/SD R ---> SR headache look on counter sight of advil take advil dec. pain Time 2: MO (no headache) What is the reinforcer abolishing effect of no headache? What is the abative effect of no headache? A. What is the conditioned reinforcer abolishing effect? B. What behavior is affected and how? A. What is the SD abative effect? B. What behavior is affected and how? (last slide: next slide Vollmer & Iwata)

47. SO12: Vollmer & Iwata Study Vollmer & Iwata demonstrate how important the MO concept is to applied situations - specifically, when training individuals with developmental disabilities Tim Vollmer Brian Iwata

48. SO12 NFE: Vollmer & Iwata Study • Rationale of study Reinforcement procedures are used extensively in training programs for individuals diagnosed with DDs, yet variation in reinforcer effectiveness both within and across individuals is very common. Can the MO account for at least some of this variation?

49. SO 12 NFE: What is meant by variation in reinforcer effectiveness within individuals? A consequence may function as a reinforcer for a behavior of an individual at one point in time, but not function as a reinforcer for that same individual at a different point in time. Food or a hug may be a reinforcer for Johnny at one point in time, but not at another point in time. SO 12 NFE: What is meant by variation in reinforcer effectiveness across individuals? A consequence may function as a reinforcer for the behavior of one individual but not function as a reinforcer for the behavior of another individual. Food may be a reinforcer for Johnny but not for Suzie.

50. SO 12 NFE: How could MOs be responsible for both types of variation? Within? Johnny may be food deprived at one point in time but not at another point in time. Food would only be reinforcing when Johnny was food deprived. Between? Johnny may be food deprived at a particular point in time but Suzie may not be. Food would only be reinforcing for Johnny. It’s really the within variation that is more interesting.