Bsc ( Hons ) Renewable Energy Dissertation Authored by Sarah Cochetel

1. Identifying the barriers to the deployment of solarcookers in the energy-poorhouseholds of sub-Saharan Africa Bsc(Hons) RenewableEnergy Dissertation Authored by Sarah Cochetel May 2012 Supervised by Dr. Peter M. Connor

2. Layout of the Presentation 1. WhySub-SaharanAfrica 2. Traditional Cooking Methods 3. Solar Cooking Technologies 4. Barriers to theirDissemination 5. Conclusions & Recommendations

3. Sub-Saharan Africa As defined by dictionnaries: “The region of Africa to the South of the Sahara Desert” 49 recognised nations (incl. Sudan and South Sudan) 850 million inhabitants

4. Why Sub-Saharan Africa? 70% have no access to electricity 657 million dependentirely on biomass and coal as primary cooking fuels Corresponds to 58% of total energy use in the region Source: The World Bank 2011

5. Traditional Cooking Methods Three-Stone Fire Environmental Impacts Health Impacts Socio-economic Impacts

6. Three-Stone Fire Key Points: Only 15% efficient Quick and simple way to cook Important part of the culture and familybonding Source of heat and light Smokekeepsinsectsaway (e.g. mosquitoesresponsible for death by malaria of 600 000 Africans in 2010) Three-Stone Fire. Source: Reed 2010

7. Environmental Impacts Uncontrolled collection of firewood Displacement of people Formation of micro-climates: Desertification (expansion of the Sahara), Floods and Droughts Deforestation

8. Direct Health Impacts: Smoke Combustion of Biomassreleases: Carbondioxideand monoxide, nitrogenoxides, benzene, sulphur, arsenic and particulatematter Indoor Air Pollution IAP (1.6 million deaths per year) Diseases and Illnesses: Acute respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonarydisease, lung cancer, pneumonia, tuberculosis, cataracts etc. Smoke in the kitchen. Source: Benanav N.d. • Women and children’sexposurelevels: • 100 times WHO’srecommendations • equivalent to 2 packs of cigarettes per day • 2 to 4 times greaterthanmen’s

9. Direct Health Impacts: Wood Collection Facts on thesejourneys: Implicated: Women and children Distance: 10km or more Load: avg 20kg per person Time: avg 40h per week Trips can last up to a few days HealthRisks: Heatstrokes Back pain & otherorthopedic injuries Animal attacks (elephants, snakes etc.) Otherse.g. walking on landmines Darfuri refugees gathering wood. Source: Farrow 2009

10. Social Impacts Direct impacts: Risk to beinsulted, raped, torturedand/or murdered. Risk of creatingpolitical tensions withotherlocals (especially for refugee populations). Secondary impacts: Frominactivitye.g. lack of income-generatingactivities or education. Leads to genderinequalities etc. From climat change e.g. formation of climaticrefugees and displacement of thousands of people. Malianwomengatheringwood. Source: Kev 2008.

11. Economic Impacts Cost of firewoodrapidlyincreasing due to fuel scarcity Limited choice of alternatives Representssignificant portion of income Sometimes more money isspent on firewoodthanfood Womenpurchasingwoodat an Ethiopianmarket. Source: Donna N.d.

12. Solar Cooking Technologies SolarResources History of Solar Cooking Most Common Designs BenefitsfromSolarCookers

13. Solar Resource Ideal latitudes for solar cooking are between 40° N and 40°S. In ideal areas, solar radiations varybetween 4.5 and 8.5 kWh/m2/day. Idealclimatic areas are desertic zones. In the Sahel, up to 300 sunnydays per year. AfricanSolar Radiation. Source: National RenewableEnergyLaboratory 2010.

14. History of Solar Cooking Solarreflexionusedthousands of yearsago by Greeks, Romans and Chinese for militarypurposes. First publications on solar cooking in 1767 by Horace de Saussure, French-Swissscientist. First practical applications: 1950’s. Full potentialacknowledgedafter the 1970’s oilcrisis. SolarCookers International founded in 1987. In the 1990’s, sporadic efforts from UN sub-divisions. Barbara Kerr and Sherry Cole with their first solarcooker. Source: PCIA 2010

15. Most Common Designs: ParabolicCookers Key Points: Focuses sunlight straight on the black pot Most efficient (up to 1200W, 250°C) Same cooking times and practices as conventional cooking methods Most expensive type Complex structure and manufacturing Bulky – requires a lot of outdoorspace Paraboliccooker. Source: SCI N.d.

16. Most Common Designs: Box Cookers Key Points: Insulated box making use of direct and diffuse sunlight Most widespreadtechnology Easy to construct and design Can hold a few pots Can be made of manymaterialse.g. cardboard, wood, plastic or metal Lessthanhalf the price of paraboliccookers Lower ratings (200W, 180°C) Solar box cooker. Source: SCI 2012

17. Most Common Designs: Panel Cookers Key Points: Reflective panels focusing light on black pot containedwithin plastic bag Cheapest design Usually made of cardboard and aluminium foil Simplest design (CooKit) distributedwidely by NGOs in refugee camps Easy to fold and transport Lowestefficiencies Panel cookerCooKit. Source: SCI 2012

18. TechnicalAdvantages Save 1 to 2 tons of firewood per year. No negativehealth impacts. No fire i.e. childrencansafely attend to the food. Save time and do not requirestirring. Non-permanent structures and so canbedeployedquickly. Can easilybe made of recycledmaterial (e.g. withTetraPak). No need for much water or oilso the foodishealthier and contains more nutrients. Food doesn’tburn i.e. lesscleaningisinvolved. Panel cookers in Chad. Source: JWW 2012

19. Socio-economicAdvantages More time for women and children to attend to otheractivitiese.g. school, income-generatingactivities, gatherother fuels to meet the rest of the household’senergyrequirements etc. Potential for men and women to share familial tasks and break down gender issues. Womenbaking cakes. Source: SCI 2012 • Saves the household’sincome and solarcookers are quicklyrepaid. • Lots of impacts on local economy and creation of jobs. Baking business. Source: SCI 2012

20. Barriers to the Dissemination of SolarCooker Technical Barriers Public Perception Institutional and Political Barriers

21. Technical Barriers Weather & OtherEnvironmental Issues Design & MaterialRelated Issues Inaccessibility of Materials & Lack of Infrastructure OtherTechnical Issues

22. Technical Barriers:Weather & OtherEnvironmental Issues Problems: Dependance on weather (intermittency, sunnyhours, seasons etc.) For shortest cooking times, needreadjustments Unsuitability of cooking times Rain, sand, dust and cleaningreduce rating by 25% Wind blowsawaysomecookers (e.g. parabolic designs) Solutions: Improve design Use higherqualitymaterials However, these lead to otherfinancialbarriers…

23. Technical Barriers:Design & MaterialRelated Issues

24. Technical Barriers:Inaccessibility of Materials & Lack of Infrastructure Problems: Needfor local solar cooking business for after-sale service and maintenance. Difficulties in obtaining aluminium plates or foil, glass, mirrors, black pots or plastic bags. Supply and distribution issues due to lack of infrastructure especially in rural areas and on islands(in 2004, only 10% of the roadswherepaved, littleaccess to electricity, literacy rare). Administrative and logistical issues often the reasonbehind the slow development of suchprojectse.g. Burkina Faso vs. South Africa. Solutions: Solving issues locally Action fromgovernmental bodies (long and slow process) Rural Population of Sub-Saharan Africa. Source: The World Bank 2012

25. Technical Barriers:OtherTechnical Issues Long cooking times. Need to expose the foodoutdoor. Needoutdoorspace (in urbandwellings, solarcookers go on the roof). Risks of thefts, poisoning, damagingfromchildren and animals. Rarelyused as stand-alonesystems, onlysaves up 40% of fuel on average. Cooking times. Source: Hanna & McArdle 2012

26. Public Perception Traditions & Beliefs GenderInequalities Adoption Criteria of Energy-Poor Households Perceived Financial Benefits Image of SolarCookers

27. Public Perception:Traditions & Beliefs Problems: More than 3000 ethnic groups with their ownbeliefs and traditions (e.g. in Uganda, 3 stone firestronglylinked to marriage). Designs do not meetaesthetic standards (e.g. square shapes). Where traditions are unshaken, adoption levels are the lowest: due to educational gaps, people do not believe the sunis capable to cook. Turn to their beliefs for explanations: “work of the devil” and “black magic”. Masai communities and solar cookers. Source: SCI 2009 • Solutions: • Involvingcommunities to design theirowncookers • Usingtheirbeliefs “against” theme.g. Sabbath • Use appropriatepromotingstrategies

28. Public Perception:GenderInequalities Problems: Financial/householddecisionstaken by men even for cooking matters. Gatheringwooddoesn’t have a real perceived value and its dangers are not recognised. Some men are scared for their wives to have free time and idle, are not ready to change cooking hours/habits or beat up women if the food tastes differently. Otherslikeditbecausewomencan have more time to take on some of theirowntasks. In some cultures, men and women have to beaddressed to separately. Sudanese boys attending school. Source: Africa Educational Trust 2008 • Solutions: • Promotions and demonstrations to bringtogether men and womenconcerned • Getting men to acknowledge the danger of firewoodgathering

29. Public Perception:Adoption Criteria of Energy-Poor Households Problems: Field studies determined 3 key factors for the adoption of solar cookers: Reduce fuel consumption (less than anticipated, not stand-alone system due to technical barriers) Similar cooking times (much longer than other techs) Similar or better functionality (impossible to roast or fry) Food has different texture and colour Different criteria in rural and urban areas Solution: Integrated Cooking Systems (Solar cooker + heat retention basket + improved stove) Integrated Cooking System. Source: Whitfield 2005

30. Public Perception:Perceived Financial Benefits Problems: Although heavily subsidised, price is still high. Cooking not necessarily a priority to invest in. Some refuse credits (“do not believe” in being indebted). Concepts of “saving”, “investing” and “ROI” are not fully understood. Solutions: Give access to information & education Promote intelligently Poverty gaps in sub-Saharan Africa. Source: The World Bank 2012

31. Public Perception:Image of SolarCookers Problems: Some products have a low quality in order for NGOs to reduce their costs. When distributed for free, end-users do not have a sense of ownership. Why aren’t higher social classes buying too? Designs considered as “cheap”, for lower-classes, people get “bored” Solutions:Promote the idea “simple is beautiful” Advertise additional uses of solar cookers: Non-food uses: Smelting, making wax, sterilising soil, warming irons to iron clothes, making the laundry, making cosmetics e.g.karité butter, sterilising medical kit and distilling water for batteries… Food-related uses: Pasteurizing water at 65°C, preparing hot drinks e.g. tea, making jams and sauces, drying vegetables and fruits, baking cakes, heating milk, killing insects contained within seeds…

32. Institutional and Political Barriers Poor Project Planning & Promotion Strategies Financial Barriers: Subsidies or MarketDevelopment? Lack of Coordination & Linkage OtherPolitical Barriers

33. Institutional & Political Barriers:Poor Planning & PromotingStrategies • Many solutions: • Plan ahead for 5 years and do background research with anthropologists and experts. • Come up with step by step development with constant feedback. • Carefully select promotion times and places. • Involve people together at village feasts etc. • Make sure problem is well understood. • Institutions e.g. SCI or JWW provide training for volunteering promoters. • ICS promoted only since 2008, need to establish new promoting strategies. Problems: Poor image from the 1960’s, 1970’s and 1980’s due to: Lack of background literature available for planning (only 2 docs from 2004) Error of promoting just one design • Weak implementation strategies • Lack of training • Immature/untested technologies

34. Institutional & Political Barriers:Financial Barriers: Subsidies or MarketDevelopment? Natural progression of technologies: R&D NGOs subsidise partially or fully but not viable: need funding. Governmental grants and CDM mechanisms often have strict administrative conditions. Subsidies sometimes get in the way of commercialisation. Hard to find motivated local entrepreneurs which have enough funds and capacity. Give access to micro-credits, low-interest loans, barter arrangements, layaway plans, hiring “only on sunny days”. Remove gender barrier as women do not always have access to these services. Solutions: National & inter-regional governments must collaborate with banking institutions and propose adequate funding schemes e.g. aim subsidies at the poorest. Get involved with GEF Small Grant Programme? Follow China’s example? Demonstration Commercialisation

35. Institutional & Political Barriers:Lack of Coordination & Linkage Issues: Internal problems (e.g. UNHCR in Aisha camp). Lack of collaboration on the field (e.g. JWW, CARE and WFP in Chad). Lack of coordination between agencies (e.g. UNHCR distributing firewood). Lack of monitoring & project follow-up. Lack of transparency in publications of results and lack of sharing information. NGOs compete against each other. Some have collaborated: EG Solar and CARE in Chad Senegalese government and UNDP SCI and JWW, KoZon and GIZ in Kenyan and Ethiopian refugee camps Solution: Connect everyone, reunite all efforts via the Solar Cooking World Network Formation of groups e.g. AFRECA China: considerable investments and collaboration between government and industry

36. Institutional & Political Barriers:OtherPolitical Barriers Problems: After 1970’s, creation of many Energy departments/ministries but funding for renewables dropped quickly. Other priorities e.g. electrification and consolidation of national utility companies. Lack of willingness and corruption (e.g. Nigeria) from fossil-fuel lobbying companies and others. Lack of access due to warfare, terrorism, kidnapping etc. Domestic transportation problems. No clear strategies & policies (suggestion of housing plan but no follow-ups). Need set of standards, manufacturers must give guarantees. Some initiatives: East African Community, with GIZ and UNDP, to give access to clean cooking technologies to half its population by 2015. 8 countries joined the ProBec. Clean Cookstove Alliance (worldwide). AFREPREN/FWD active since 1987. Unknown outcomes!

37. Conclusions & Recommendations Some issues toogreat to besolved by solar cooking strategiese.g. lack of education, infrastructure etc. Changes take time: needappropriate long-termmechanisms. Need to promoteintelligently and listen to the end-users’ needs (depending on culture, religion, genderstatus, living areas etc.). NGOs, governments, industry and local small-scale businesses need to work in collaboration and total transparencye.g. China. Governments must createpartnershipswithbanking institutions and createappropriate pro-poorenergypolicies to remove the barriers for NGOs. Need to keepinvesting in better designs, but focusing more on reducing production, marketing and end-users’ costs. AdvocateIntegrated Cooking Systems and avoidrepeatingpasterrors.

38. Thankyou for your attention