General Psychology 1

1. General Psychology 1 Classical Conditioning – Module 20 Operant Conditioning – Module 21 Cognitive (Latent) Learning – Module 21 March 29, 2005 Class #17

2. A conditioned phobia… • Watson and Raynor (1920) • Behavioral psychologists John Watson and grad assistant Rosalie Raynor taught an 11-month old infant to become afraid of a gentle white laboratory rat • At the beginning of the study, “Little Albert” was unafraid of the white rat and played freely with the animal • While he was playing with the rat, the experimenters frightened the child by making a loud noise behind him • The baby was startled and began to cry • They repeated this several times • Thereafter, he avoided the rat and would cry whenever it was brought close to him

3. “Little Albert” • In Pavlovian terms, a bond had been established between the sight of the rat (CS) and the arousal of Albert's autonomic nervous system (CR) • Once this S-R bond was fixed, fear could also be elicited by showing Albert any furry object… • Little Albert became fearful of other furry animals, Watson's hair, a sealskin coat, even a bearded Santa Claus mask

4. Little Albert experiments…

6. Classical Conditioning Explanation for PTSD… • This behavioral viewpoint helps to explain why people posttraumatic stress… • This mental disorder involves a variety of anxiety-related symptoms that start after a particularly traumatic event and then continue for a long time

7. Behavioral Explanation Classically conditioned fear response is taking place (see below): • UCS UCR (traumatic event) (fear, terror, etc) • NS + UCSUCR (setting) + (trauma) (fear, terror, etc) * Only takes one pairing • CS CR (setting) (fear, terror, etc) * Since it only takes one pairing it doesn’t fit classical conditioning perfectly

8. Conditioned Taste Aversion • Also, doesn't fit exactly within all the rules of classical conditioning… • Occurs reliably after only a single trial (one pairing) • Timing doesn't seem to be much of a factor – strong learning is taking place despite delays of minutes or hours or more

9. Garcia and Koelling (1966) • Rats drink flavored water from tubes that flashed light and made noise when the tubes were licked… • Group 1: • Rats were given electric shocks to their feet two seconds after beginning to drink • Group 2: • Rats were exposed to X rays (which made them sick) while they drank • Later, both groups were tested with a tube of flavored water producing lights and noise and a tube of unflavored water that was not producing lights and noise… so rats are basically given a choice between these two tubes to drink from

10. Garcia and Koelling (1966) • Group 1 (rats that had been shocked) avoided the tube producing the lights and noise while Group 2 (rats that had been made sick) avoided only the flavored water • Conclusion: • Evidently, rats (and other species) have a built-in predisposition to associate illness mostly with what they have eaten or drunk (Group 2 rats) and to associate skin pain mostly with what they have seen or heard (Group 1 rats) • This is an example of biopreparedness – organisms are "biologically prepared" or "genetically tuned" to develop certain conditioned associations

11. Timing Is Everything • The precise timing of the NS/UCS pairings has a great influence on whether the NS can be reliably conditioned into a CS and thus reliably produce the CR… • Classical Conditioning works best when the NS precedes the UCS… • Forward-conditioning • Example: Tone/Food

12. Timing Is Everything • If done opposite (backward conditioning) then learning is very slow… • Example: Food/Tone • If done at the same time (simultaneous conditioning) learning is even less likely to occur. • Example: Tone and Food are presented at the exact same time

13. Predictability • The higher the likelihood, the higher the amount of conditioning

14. Signal Strength • A conditioned response will be stronger is the UCS is strong • Example: MilkBone works better with my dog than a pickle

15. Attention • The role of awareness often comes into play concerning learning • In the natural environment sometimes more than one NS precedes the UCS • Here, the role of attention can influence which CS becomes associated with the UCS • Example: Before being struck by lightning a child was taking a sip of a soft drink, was watching a dog, and was listening to a song…what then becomes the CS

16. Attention • Insofar as conditioning is concerned is their thinking going on? Is there a cognitive component or is more reactions? Instincts? • Classically conditioned taste aversions to things that can cause an illness especially seem to have an awareness component involved

17. Systematic Desensitization • Wolpe (1958) • Attempted to counter-condition people suffering from phobias • In counter-conditioning the stimulus is paired with a new response which is incompatible with the old one • Wolpe basically utilizes an anxiety hierarchy to gradually but systematically desensitize the patient over several therapy sessions

18. Systematic Desensitization of a Spider Phobia • Show a picture of a spider to the patient • HR goes up – but talk to them – get them to relax – eventually they are okay • Toy spider that looks fake • HR goes up – but talk to them – get them to relax – eventually they are okay • Toy spider that looks real • HR goes up – but talk to them – get them to relax – eventually they are okay • A real dead spider • HR goes up – but talk to them – get them to relax – eventually they are okay • A live spider • HR goes up – but talk to them – get them to relax – eventually they are okay

19. Systematic Desensitization • The hypothesis here is that a relaxed state cannot co-exist with a state of fear. Its one or the other…cannot be simultaneously anxious and relaxed • Therefore, if you can repeatedly relax someone (see spider example) when they are faced with anxiety-producing stimuli – you will gradually eliminate their anxiety • The trick is to proceed gradually

20. Criticism of Systematic Desensitization • Wolpe’s critics say there is no attempt to achieve insight into the underlying cause of the fear • Wolpe says “so what” • He’s not really concerned about what caused it as long as its alleviated • Only concern is that the maladaptive behavior is cured and that patients feel better about themselves and begin acting in ways that will bring them greater life satisfaction

21. Implications for AdvertisingLearning Theory in Action • Advertisers utilizes classical conditioning for its persuasive abilities… • Gorn (1982) • Just like Pavlov's dogs learned to connect the sound of a bell…food consumers associate stimuli such as advertising messages of status and quality, with various products and brands • For some reason, these connections do not occur as quickly in consumers

22. Implications for AdvertisingLearning Theory in Action • Rescorla (1988) • The stimuli must be paired with the product several times • This may be why there is a great deal of importance regarding frequency levels in media planning • Sissors and Bumba (1996) • A consumer must be exposed to an advertising message several times before it is effective

23. Conditioning Consumers(Stimulus Generalization) • Remember, Pavlov's dogs would also salivate when exposed to other noises similar to bells…same idea with advertising • Consumers often respond to products resembling another brand

24. Generalization • Kanner (1989) • Advertisers evidently understand the benefits of association as "roughly 80% of new products are actually extensions of existing brands or product lines“ • Solomon (1994) • For example, a store brand mouthwash may be packaged to resemble a leading brand name in hopes that the consumer will evoke a response similar to the leading brand and believe that it shares similar qualities

25. Conditioning Consumers (Stimulus Discrimination) • Solomon (1994) • In a similar manner, brand names will often use discrimination in which certain stimuli are weakened, such as store brands, so that they are not associated with the response • Manufacturers of well established brands will urge consumers not to buy “cheap imitations”, because the result will not be what they expect

26. A problem with conditioning consumers… • McSweeney and Bierley (1984) • Reported that sometimes stimuli are weakened because consumers are exposed to them while the product is not present • Popular songs are often heard in advertisements, but they are also often heard in other situations

27. Instrumental Conditioning • E. L. Thorndike (1905) • Described the learning that was governed by his "law of effect" as instrumental conditioning because responses are strengthened when they are instrumental in producing rewards • Law of Effect • Responses that are rewarded are more likely to be repeated and responses that are produce discomfort are less likely to be repeated

28. Thorndike's Puzzle Box • In his classic experiment, a cat was locked in the box and enticed to escape by using food that was placed out of the reach from the box • The box included ropes, levers, and latches that the cat could use to escape • Trial and error behavior would lead to ultimate success (usually within three minutes) • Thorndike felt we learned things through trial and error – awareness

29. Gestalt Viewpoint • Wolfgang Kohler • A Gestalt psychologist had an opposing view is that we learn things implicitly – unawareness – natural insight • Example: gorilla in a cage – food out of reach – but stick is not…

30. Operant Conditioning • Operant Conditioning • A type of learning in which voluntary (controllable and non-reflexive) behavior is strengthened if it is reinforced and weakened if it is punished (or not reinforced)

31. Skinner (1938) • The organism learns a response by operating on the environment… • Note: • The terms instrumental conditioning and operant conditioning describe essentially the same learning process and are often used interchangeably • Basically, Skinner extended and formalized many of Thorndike's ideas

32. Operant Conditioning • Response comes first and is voluntary unlike classical where stimulus comes first and response is involuntary • Classical:S  R • Operant:S  R  S that becomes R  S

33. The Skinner Box • Soundproof chamber with a bar or key that could be manipulated to release a food or water reward • Specifically, the conditioning chamber was a stable plexi-glass box with a response lever, reinforcement delivery tube, and various means for stimulus presentation • In Skinner's early experiments, a rat was placed in the conditioning chamber and when it pressed the response lever, it received a pellet of food

34. Shaping:Reinforcing successive approximations • Responses that come successively closer to the desired response were reinforced… • Skinner referred to this as his “Behavioral Technology” • Taught pigeons “unpigeon-like” behaviors • Walking in Figure 8, playing ping-pong, and keeping a “guided missile” on course by pecking at a moving target displayed on a screen…but most proud of getting them to hoist an American flag and then to salute it

35. B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

36. In the Lab…

37. Operant Conditioning • Important terms • Primary Reinforcers • Secondary Reinforcers • Positive Reinforcement • Punishment • Negative Reinforcement

38. Reinforcers • Primary Reinforcers • Innately rewarding; no learning necessary • Stimulus that naturally strengthens any response that precedes it without the need for any learning on the part of the organism • Food, water, etc. • Secondary Reinforcers • A consequence that is learned by pairing with a primary reinforcer • For people, money, good grades, and words of praise, etc. are often linked to basic rewards • We need money to buy food, etc.

39. Positive Reinforcement • Behavior is strengthened when something pleasant or desirable occurs following the behavior • With the use of positive reinforcement chances that the behavior will occur in the future is increased

40. Punishment • Any stimulus presented immediately after a behavior in order to decrease the future probability of that behavior • For example: • If your kid runs into the middle of the street and you flip out and “express to him how bad he is” this (at least in psychological terms) is only considered to be punishment if it does in fact lead to a decrease in that child’s behavior of running into the street

41. Negative Reinforcement • One of the most misunderstood terms in psychology… • Definitely a problem with semantics here • The word reinforcement means that a response is strengthened • The word negative seems to imply that the response is somehow weakened • This is not the case here! • So how literally can a response be negatively reinforced??? • Often, this term is misapplied to term punishment • So lets try to proceed slowly in our attempts to figure this out…

42. Negative Reinforcement • Positive Reinforcement is a reward • That’s easy enough • Punishment is something that weakens a response • Again, this is pretty basic • In an attempt to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in the future, an operant response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. This is negative reinforcement… • Example: When a child says "please" and "thankyou" to his/her mother, the child may not have to engage in his/her dreaded chore of setting the table

43. Negative Reinforcement • So we are learning to do something to turn off a bad stimulus • Example: We put on boots to prevent sitting in class with wet socks on • Increasing a behavior to stop a bad thing from occurring • Doing something to remove the reinforcer

44. Types of Negative Reinforcement • Escape Conditioning • This occurs when the behavior has led to a reduction of the aversiveness of the environment • Example: Rats moving away from the shock area after feeling the pain • This does involve an observable change in the environment • Avoidance Conditioning • When a behavior has prevented the onset of an impending increase in the aversiveness of the environment • Example: Rats moving away from the shock area after hearing a signal that the shock is about to be administered • A child apologizes upon seeing their parent frowning thus avoiding being yelled at • Involves no observable change in the environment

45. Schedules of Reinforcement • Continuous Reinforcement • Reinforcement delivered every time a particular response occurs • Intermittent Reinforcement • Reinforcement is administered only some of the time

46. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-Ratio • Reinforcement provided after a fixed number of responses • Food every tenth bar press • Variable-Ratio • Reinforcement after a a variable number of responses (works on a average) • Unpredictable number of responses are required (slot machines)

47. Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement • Fixed-Interval Schedules • Provides reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some fixed time has passed since the last reward • Number of responses doesn’t matter only time • Example: Food is given to rats every 20 min. • Variable-Interval Schedule • Reinforce the first responses after a certain amount of time has past • Again number of responses doesn’t matter • But this time the amount of time changes • Might be the first response after ten minutes then the next time it is the first response after 20 minutes, and then the next time it is the first response after 30 min…

48. Applications of Operant Conditioning: In the Classroom • Skinner thought that our education system was ineffective • He suggested that one teacher in a classroom could not teach many students adequately when each child learns at a different rate • He proposed using teaching machines (what we now call computers) that would allow each student to move at their own pace • The teaching machine would provide self-paced learning that gave immediate feedback, immediate reinforcement, identification of problem areas, etc., that a teacher could not possibly provide

49. Applications of Operant Conditioning: In the Workplace • Pedalino & Gamboa (1974) • To help reduce the frequency of employee tardiness, these researchers implemented a game-like system for all employees that arrived on time • When an employee arrived on time, they were allowed to draw a card • Over the course of a 5-day workweek, the employee would have a full hand for poker • At the end of the week, the best hand won $20 • This simple method reduced employee tardiness significantly and demonstrated the effectiveness of operant conditioning on humans

50. Criticisms Of The Use Of Reinforcement • Criticism #1: • Behavior should not have to rely on persuasion… • It is manipulative and controlling • Appropriate behavior should be the norm • Skinner says we are always controlled by rewards but often are unaware of these… • Parents, peers, schools, employers, etc. all use rewards to control our behavior • Skinner: • If its manipulative then everyone is to blame?