Part 1 - The Essay Structure

1. Essay Writing Skills Part 1 - The Essay Structure

2. Part 1 - Lecture Outline • General structure of an essay • Introduction of common terms • Writing arguments • Achieving balance • Sign-posting and distancing language • Possible essay structures

3. General Structure of an Essay • Introduction • Contains the foundation to your subsequent arguments • State your stand clearly and unambiguously towards the end of your introduction • Main Body – Support your stand by • Writing arguments (reasons for believing in your stand) • Writing counter-arguments and rebutting them (ie providing a balanced response) • Conclusion – Restate your stand and sum up your essay

4. Introduction to Common Terms • Stand – the position which the writer takes • Argument – a reason the writer has taken to support a particular stand • Examples – significant events or trends which illustrate the argument which the writer is making

5. Introduction to Common Terms • Counter-argument: An opposing viewpoint or argument which does not support the stand that you are taking • Rebuttal: An argument which invalidates (make something invalid) or tries to point out the flaws in a counter-argument. • Balance: A consideration and discussion of alternative perspectives (ie counter-arguments) and rebutting them

6. General Structure of an Essay Introduction 1 Body 2 (at least 4-5 points) 3 4 5 Conclusion

7. General Structure of an Essay • ‘Press censorship is unnecessary.’ Comment. • Task 1: • On the right hand column under the headings A, B and C, label the sections of the essay (Introduction, Bodyand Conclusion). • What is the writer’s stand?

8. Writing Arguments • When writing an argument, you have to persuade the reader to agree or be convinced with your argument or opinion. • A clear and coherentexplanation as well as the use of relevantand currentexamples are therefore necessary to strengthen your argument.

9. Task 2 – Refer to Paragraph 6 in the Sample Essay • Identify the writer’s argument (A) in this paragraph. • What example(s) (EG) does she use to reinforce her ideas?

10. Example of an Argument (A) (Paragraph 6) • Furthermore, press censorship is necessary because the national press is taken by the world as an expression of the country’s views. Hence it is crucial for the government to act as a censor to the press as it has an obligation to its people to choose the peace and harmony of the society over individual freedom. This is precisely the point of a state—to look out for society’s well-being even if it means forsaking some individual interests. Since this is so, it is only natural that the government disallows dangerous comments to be made in the press, which is not just open for the interpretation of the nation’s citizens, but also a world-wide readership. Therefore, censorship becomes an issue of national security if the opinions in the press are perceived as offensive to another country. By not censoring the press, the government may have well drawn its country to war. A

11. Use of Examples (EG) in Paragraph 6 • This can be seen specifically in Japan, where the press has published several articles about Japan’s reluctance to apologize for war-time atrocities, much to the displeasure of China and Korea, its neighbours. • Needless to say, such discord amongst countries can only be detrimentaland this only proves that censorship is necessaryin our highly efficient world where word gets around at the speed of light. EG Evalua-tion of EG

12. Achieving Balance • Balance: A consideration and discussion of counter-arguments and rebutting them • Counter-arguments need to be included and evaluated. • Readers are persuaded to take your view when you show that you have • considered opposing views and • are able to rebut them.

13. How to Incorporate Counter-arguments • Anticipate alternative viewpoints • Who may disagree with my views? Why? • What evidence do they have to support their views? • Possible reasons why some may hold an opposing view • Present these viewpoints objectively

14. Sign-posting and Distancing Language • To avoid contradicting yourself, use sign-posting or distancing phrases to indicate your discussion of counter-arguments. • Such phrases include: • Some may hold a different view. They insist that… • While some may claim that… • Although some may argue that… • An opposing viewpoint is that… • It might seem that… • One may object here that…

15. Rebutting Counter-arguments • Why do you need to rebut counter-arguments? • Different ways to rebut: • Show how and/or why it is mistaken • Acknowledge its validity but suggest why it is relatively less important or less likely than what you have proposed

16. Task 3 – Refer to Paragraph 2 in the Sample Essay. • Identify the opposing viewpoint / counter-argument (CA). • Identify the rebuttal (R). • How does the writer show she is discussing the counter-argument and then the rebuttal? What sign-posting devices does she use?

17. Sign-posting Rebuttals • Use sign-posting words or phrases to indicate that you are rebutting the counter-argument. • Such words or phrases may include: • However … • However, I disagree with this view because… • However, this opinion is fallacious because … • But I will argue that … • Despite these claims / criticisms …

18. Example of a Counter-argument (CA) in Paragraph 2 • People who disagree with censorship claim that censorship limits expression to what the government or society allows the individual to say. Indeed it is a common argument that press censorship, as well as any other media censorship, eliminates freedom of expression. This can be stifling, because the channels of expression and subsequently perimeters of thought have been defined and limited. As a result, people will become aware and wary of taboos, and be fearful to speak out. CA

19. Example of a Rebuttal (R) in Paragraph 2 • However, these people are forgetting that censorship only applies to extreme views that may be detrimental to the well-being of society. Such views, if aired on national press could spark outrage and perhaps ruin a country, leading to unrest, or even a civil war. Therefore, censorship in this case actually safeguards the freedom of expression of more moderate views, which can only aid healthy discussion, instead of inciting hate. R

20. Some Possible Structures

21. Concluding Words • There is no one correct way to write the essay. • It depends on • the nature of the question • your own writing style • what you think is the most effective way to present and discuss the issues in the question you have chosen

22. Essay Writing Skills Part 2 - Question Analysis & Brainstorming

23. Aim of Part 2 (Question Analysis & Brainstorming) Careful examination and analysis of the essay question in order to: • Decide what the scope / boundaries of the question are • (i.e. What should/can I talk about in this essay?) • Decide what is important in the question • (i.e. What should I focus on in this essay?) • Decide what the question actually wants you to do • (i.e. What do I need to address in this essay?)

24. Part 2 - Lecture Outline 1. Classification of Questions 2. Word Analysis 3. Question Analysis • Clarifying Key Terms • Identifying assumptions 4. Brainstorming for Arguments

25. 1. Classification of Essay Types • Essay Type is identified as : • Argumentative • Eg. The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2010) • Expository • Eg. How important are dreams ? (2008) • Eg. Consider the view that most work these days could and should not be done from home. (2010) • Reflective / Philosophical • Eg. Can humour ever be serious? (2012)

26. Part 2 - Lecture Outline 1. Classification of Questions 2. Word Analysis 3. Question Analysis • Clarifying KeyTerms • Identifying assumptions 4. Brainstorming for Arguments

27. A. Look Out For Modal Words • What do these modals imply? • Should people be allowed to have children by artificial means ? (2012) • Can humour ever be serious ? (2012) • Consider most work these days could and should be done from home. (2012).

28. B. Look Out For Words With Absolutes / Extremes • All, everybody • Nothing, nobody, none • Never, ever

29. B. Look Out For Words With Absolutes / Extremes ‘The most influential individuals in history are those who have caused the most harm.’ How far would you accept this view? (2012) How far is it acceptable for technology to be used only for financial benefit? (2012) Is violence ever justified? (2012) Can prejudice ever be eliminated? (2012) Does modern technology always improve the quality of people’s lives? (2007)

30. C. Look Out For Words Which Are Relative Or Comparative Or Degree-indicative Is there any value in preserving minority languages in the world? (2012) How effective are international efforts to ease the problem of global hunger? (2010) ‘People in the Arts, living or dead, receive far more recognition than those in the Sciences, even though it is less deserved.’ Consider this claim. (2012) The key to good health is lifestyle rather than medicine.’ How far do you agree? (2010)

31. D. Look Out For Words Which Indicate Context • Meaning of ‘context’ – • ..consider the related factors and characteristics that impact something so that it can be properly understood or explained. • In GP, there are two main contexts – • Place / Location • Time 

32. D. Look Out For Words Which Indicate Context – Place Or Time Is there any value in preserving minority languages in the world ? (2012) To what extent are the rights of animals protected in your society ? (2012) The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2010) Only modern architecture and modern art have a place in today’s world. How far is this true of your society ? (2011) In this digital age, do newspapers still have a role in your society ? (2012) Can space research be justified nowadays ? (2011) Can mathematics be seen as anything more than a useful tool in everyday life ? (2010)

33. E. Look Out For Topic vs. Issue For any question, distinguish between • 1. ‘Topic / Subject Matter’ • 2. ‘Issue / Contention’ Eg. Do awards and prizes serve any useful purpose? (2011) Topic 1 : Topic 2 : Issue :

34. E. Look Out ForTopic vs. Issue The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2010) topic (ISSUE)context

35. E. Look Out ForTopic vs. Issue In this digital age, do newspapers still context topic context have a role in your society ? (2012) (ISSUE)context

36. Part 2 - Lecture Outline 1. Classification of Questions 2. Word Analysis 3. Question Analysis • Clarifying KeyTerms • Identifying assumptions 4. Brainstorming for Arguments

37. A. Clarify Key Terms • Clarify meanings of key terms by • defining or re-defining keywords or phrases • interpreting • paraphrasing How far can an individual be held responsible for crimes against humanity ? (2010) Correct interpretation of ‘crimes against humanity’. • Consider the view that mathematics possesses not only truth, but supreme beauty. (2012) • Defining meanings of ‘ truth’ and ‘supreme beauty’.

38. A. Clarify Key Terms 3. Do awards and prizes serve any useful purpose? Paraphrase meaning of ‘useful’. 4. Young people are slaves to fashion. Do you agree? Interpret meaning of ‘slaves to fashion’

39. B. Identify Assumptions in the Question • What is an Assumption? • Something believed to be true without proof. • 1. In this digital age, do newspapers still have a role in your society? (2012) • Assumptions : • Newspapers had and still have a role to play in Singapore • The advent of the digital age could possibly affect this role • 2. The book has no place in modern society. Discuss. (2012) • Assumptions : • There is no need for the book in modern society • The book is not compatible with the characteristics of a modern society

40. Question Analysis : Putting It All Together Eg. ‘Only modern architecture and modern art have a place in today’s world.’ How true is this of your society? (2011) Essay Type : Contexts : Topic : Issue: Value / Degree : Key Term : Have a place - presence recognised or valued Assumption : Ancient / classical architecture and art have no place in today’s modern world.

41. Part 2 - Lecture Outline 1. Classification of Questions 2. Word Analysis 3. Question Analysis • Clarifying KeyTerms • Identifying assumptions 4. Brainstorming Ideas for Arguments

42. Brainstorming Ideas For Arguments Brainstorm for ideas for arguments / points that explain your stand / position / opinion / thesis Brainstorm for counter-arguments for rebuttal’s sake

43. Brainstorming Tools Brainstorming tools Always ask at the start of the question: Why is this question set? What is happening in the world that has resulted in the examiner asking this question? Why is the examiner asking this question now? Is there any trend that I should be looking out for?

44. Brainstorming Tools • S.P.E.C.T.R.A.L Social, Scientific; Political; Economic, Environment, Education, Ethical, Education; Cultural; Technological; Religious, Racial; Artistic, Aesthetic; Legal • Identifying the implications on different sectors / domains / parameters

45. Brainstorming Tools Eg. Can prejudice ever be eliminated ? (2011) • Use SPECTRAL to generate domainsor parametersto determine the scope of coverage. Prejudice …Social, Economic, Educational, Cultural, Religious, Racial. • Before exploring reasons for possibility of elimination of each type of prejudice

46. Brainstorming Tool – Context-related • Characteristics of the Modern World / Trends • Information driven • Technologically driven • Politically globalised • Economically globalised • Culturally globalised • Liberalised • Democratisation • Secularisation • Individualism • Showing sensitivity to today’s society

47. Brainstorming Tool – Context-related Eg. Many developed countries are paying increasing attention to the needs of the disadvantaged. How far is this true in Singapore ? (2008) • Characteristics of Singapore • Pragmatic • Conservative • Individualistic? • Result driven • Focus on academic achievement • Multicultural society • Secular • Showing awareness of Singapore’s culture

48. Review – Lecture Outline • Question Analysis and Brainstorming • Classification of Questions • Word Analysis • Question Analysis • Clarifying Key Terms • Identifying assumptions • Brainstorming for Arguments • The Essay Structure • General structure of an essay • Introduction of common terms • Writing arguments • Achieving balance • Sign-posting and distancing language • Possible essay structures

49. What Next After Question Analysis? • If you have done a proper question analysis and brainstormed for ideas for your arguments (and counter-arguments)… • You are NOW READY to start writing your essay • First, you have to learn how to write an effective introductory paragraph during the NEXTskills lecture