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Explore Nixon's policies, strategies, the Nixon Doctrine, Détente era, China and USSR relations, Watergate scandal, cover-up, and repercussions on his presidency.
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Chapter 19 Objectives and Questions • Explain why U.S. relations with the U.S.S.R and China improved under Nixon. • Sequence the events of the Watergate scandal and aftermath • Identify the causes of Iranian hostage crises and effects on the Carter presidency. • Compare gains of African Americans, Native Americans and people with disabilities. • Analyze some of the environmental protection initiatives of the 1960s and 1970s.
Nixon’s Election and Policies • “Silent Majority” Nixon described his supporters as a “silent majority,” suggesting that the number of people who supported government policies outnumbered the more vocal antiwar protestors. • Nixon’s Promises Nixon promised peace in Vietnam, law and order, a more efficient government, and a return to traditional values. This strategy created a “generation gap,” in which many young people opposed Nixon, while older adults supported him. • Nixon’s Southern Strategy Nixon’s electoral strategy was based on drawing support from Southern conservatives. He promised to advance a number of Southern conservative issues, including nominating conservative judges to federal courts and opposing court-ordered busing. • Welfare Reform Nixon sought to reform the nation’s welfare system by replacing the Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), which he believed undermined self-sufficiency, with the Family Assistance Plan, which put more responsibility on the nation’s poor.
THE NIXON DOCTRINE • Chief advisor Nixon’s national security advisor, Henry Kissinger, helped shape Nixon’s foreign policy. • Vietnamization Nixon and Kissinger put forth the policy they called Vietnamization, which advocated a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops from Vietnam and encouraged South Vietnam to take responsibility for its own defense. The Nixon administration then extended the doctrine of Vietnamization to other parts of the world. Under this Nixon Doctrine, the United States turned over the responsibility for maintaining peace and stability to its allies. • Détente Nixon and Kissinger believed that U.S. policy had to adjust to account for new powers. This meant negotiation with communist countries and the relaxation of Cold War tensions, which was called détente.
EFFECTS OF DÉTENTE • Nixon in China Nixon visited China and the two countries agree to establish “more normal” relations. • Nixon in the Soviet Union Nixon’s visit to China prompted the Soviet Union to propose a meeting between the two nations. Nixon and Brezhnev signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, or SALT I, to temporarily freeze each country’s supply of nuclear weapons, relaxing tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union.
The Roots of Watergate • Seeking a Second Term Despite the successes of his first term, Nixon believed his re-election was at risk. He directed his staff to ensure that he won the election of 1972. Nixon’s advisers ordered a break-in at the Democratic National Committee headquarters at the Watergate building in Washington, D.C., to steal information about Nixon’s opponents. A security guard called police, who arrested the men. • Investigation Bob Woodward, a young reporter with The Washington Post, attended the bail hearing of the defendants. After the discovery that James McCord, one of the Watergate burglars, was a member of the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (often derided as CREEP), rumors circulated that the White House orchestrated the burglary. Woodward and his partner, Carl Bernstein, began investigating. • Hiding Facts Nixon staffers hid their involvement, destroying documents and lying to investigators. The White House tried to stop the FBI investigation and used the CIA to stall the bureau’s case. Nixon publicly denied White House involvement. The cover-up worked. Nixon won re-election by a large majority in 1972.
The Cover-Up Unravels • Senate Investigation In early 1973, James McCord testified to the Senate committee investigating potential wrongdoing in the presidential campaign. White House counsel John Dean testified that top administration officials had planned and covered up the burglary, but lack of evidence halted the investigation. • The Tapes In July 1973, a White House aide revealed that Nixon had recorded key phone conversations. Nixon refused to hand over the tapes, claiming their publication would compromise national security. Special prosecutor Archibald Cox took Nixon to court to force him to turn over the tapes. • Saturday Night Massacre Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox, but Richardson instead offered his resignation. Nixon’s solicitor general Robert Bork fired Cox. The media used the incident as evidence of presidential abuse of power, harming Nixon’s reputation. • Vice Presidency After Vice President Spiro Agnew was charged with accepting bribes, he resigned in the fall of 1973. Representative Gerald Ford was nominated and approved to replace Agnew as vice president. • Turning Over the Tapes In July 1974, the Supreme Court ruled that Nixon must turn over the tapes of his phone conversations. Soon after, a House committee voted to impeach Nixon for obstructing justice, misusing federal agencies, and defying Congress. • Resignation Before the House could vote on impeachment, the U.S. public heard Nixon on tape demanding an end to the FBI investigation just days after the Watergate break-in. On August 9, 1974, Nixon became the first president to resign from office, and Gerald Ford assumed the presidency.
THE LEGACY OF WATERGATE • Pardon In September 1974, President Ford pardoned Nixon, which ended the possibility of Nixon standing trial for his role in the Watergate affair. • Post-Watergate Reform As a result of issues that arose during the scandal, Congress passed Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments (1974, 1976, 1979) and the Ethics in Government Act (1978). • Distrust Following the credibility gap that arose during the Vietnam War, the Watergate scandal increased distrust of public officials. Politically, Watergate led Congress to increase the use of independent counsels in subsequent presidential administrations.
The Economic Crisis of the 1970s • OPEC Foreign oil producers, which included Iran, seven Arab countries, plus Venezuela, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Ecuador, announced an oil embargo for countries that supported Israel, including the United States. • Rising Prices Oil prices continued to rises after the embargo ended, which caused gasoline prices to rise. The cost of heating oil and gasoline forced Americans to spend more on those necessities and less on other products. This resulted in a recession.
Ford and Carter Battle the Economic Crisis • WIN To fight recession Ford proposed “Whip Inflation Now” (WIN). He urged energy conservation. Ford also vetoed government spending bills and fought to keep taxes low, while balancing the budget. • Ford’s Foreign Policy Ford continued Nixon’s policy of détente with the Soviet Union and China. Secretary of State Henry Kissinger signed the Helsinki Accords, which resolved border conflicts and human rights issues in Europe. Communists seized power in Cambodia and captured a U.S. ship, prompting a U.S. military response. • Election of 1976 Ford ran against Jimmy Carter, who presented himself as a Washington outsider. This appealed to Americans who had become suspicious of entrenched Washington politicians. Carter’s outsider appeal along with the economic problems facing the country and the decision to pardon Richard Nixon contributed to Ford’s narrow defeat.
Carter’s Foreign Policy • Morality Foreign Policy Carter emphasized a commitment to human rights throughout the world. As a sign of goodwill toward Latin America, Carter signed legislation that would transfer control of the Panama Canal to Panama, effective in 1999. The United States had operated the Panama Canal for more than 60 years. • Camp David Accords Carter encouraged greater dialogue among Middle Eastern leaders. He brokered a historic peace treaty between Israel and Egypt—two countries that had been engaged in open conflict for many years. • Olympic Boycott Carter pressured the Soviet Union on human rights issues and criticized that country’s invasion of Afghanistan. To protest these issues, he kept U.S. athletes home from the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. • The Iran Hostage Crisis In November 1979, Iranian revolutionaries stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took over 50 Americans hostage. The Carter Administration was unsuccessful at negotiating their release and in April 1980, Carter authorized a failed rescue attempt. The hostages were finally released the day Carter left office—January 20, 1981.
African Americans Seek Greater Opportunity • Cause for Busing Despite Supreme Court rulings on integration of schools, black students still attended predominantly black schools, and white students attended predominantly white schools. • Arguments for Busing Investigations showed that schools in largely white neighborhoods were better than schools in black neighborhoods. African Americans were not getting the same education as whites. To address this problem, states began busing students to schools to balance the enrollment of blacks and whites. In 1971 the Supreme Court upheld busing in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education. • Arguments against Busing Many white communities protested the lack of choice in schools. Many white families pulled their students out of schools subject to busing and moved to districts where busing did not occur. In Boston and other cities, so many white students left that African Americans and other minorities again dominated the schools.
New Political Efforts • Establishment of Affirmative Action To address inequalities in hiring and higher education, African American leaders pushed for affirmative action programs. Affirmative action required schools and employers to recruit a certain number or percentage of African Americans, and later, other minority groups. • Operation PUSH In 1971 Jesse Jackson, former aide to Dr. King, organized Operation PUSH to register voters, develop African American businesses, and broaden educational opportunities. • Congressional Black Caucus (CBC) In 1971 the Congressional Black Caucus was organized by African American members of Congress to help them work together and pursue common goals. Shirley Chisholm, the first African American woman in Congress and founding member of Congressional Black Caucus, ran for president in 1972. • New Political Leaders Jesse Jackson, a former aide to Dr. King who organized Operation PUSH, ran for president twice, but lost. Louis Farrakhan, minister of the Nation of Islam, organized the Million Man March in Washington, D.C., in 1995 to promote self-reliance and responsibility among African American men.
Native Americans and Civil Rights • Native American Groups In 1961 Native Americans drafted the Declaration of Indian Purpose to demand that the U.S. government provide economic opportunities on reservations. In 1969 Native Americans organized the American Indian Movement (AIM) to demand greater change and autonomy. They took control of the old Alcatraz Prison for 19 months to call attention to their struggles. In 1973 they seized control of Wounded Knee, South Dakota, by force and took hostages to demand that the U.S. government honor its past treaty obligations and improve administration of reservations. • Goals Native Americans experienced higher unemployment, lower life expectancy, and lower earnings potential than other minority groups. They also received less education. Many lived on reservations where such conditions were endemic. Many Native Americans wanted greater autonomy from the U.S. government and recognition that reservations had their own laws. • Native American Accomplishments The Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act of 1975 provided money for Native American education and gave greater control over federal programs to local officials. State and federal court cases recognized Native American land and water rights. Reservation governments also won the right to tax businesses on reservations. Native Americans have developed new businesses to provide revenue for improving quality of life on reservations.
The Disability Rights Movement • Goals • Independent Living In the 1970s, people began advocating for individuals with disabilities by urging deinstitutionalization. The campaign for civil rights began as a movement to integrate persons of all physical and mental ability levels into mainstream society. • Equal Access To realize their full civil rights, disabled persons needed the government to prohibit discrimination in employment, education, and housing, as well as to require physical accommodations to make facilities more accessible.
Disabilities Rights Legislation • Facilities The Architectural Barriers Act required that new buildings built with federal funds must be accessible to disabled persons. • Discrimination Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act in 1973 prohibited discrimination against disabled persons by any federally funded service. • Direct Action In 1977 the American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities organized sit-ins around the country to demand that the government establish provisions for enforcing disability legislation. • Special Education The Education for All Handicapped Children Act guaranteed students with disabilities a free, appropriate education. As a result, many students with disabilities were introduced to regular classrooms for the first time. • Americans with Disabilities Act In 1990 this law prohibited discrimination against disabled persons in employment, transportation, public education, and telecommunications.
The Origins of Environmentalism • Rachel Carson The use of toxic pesticides led Carson to write Silent Spring, which many people believe initiated the environmental movement in the early 1960s. • DDT Spraying In 1966 residents of Patchogue on Long Island, New York, learned that DDT was being sprayed to kill mosquitoes. Scientists concluded that DDT could poison the lake and local rivers. Residents sued to have the spraying stopped. Legal actions eventually resulted in a nationwide ban on DDT. Scientists involved in the case founded the Environmental Defense Fund. • Other Pollution Air, water, and ground pollution came to the forefront in the late 1960s. Smog made air in cities unhealthy. Timber companies had left forests barren and vulnerable to mudslides. Water pollution had made rivers and other waterways unsafe. • Polluted Locations In 1969 an oil spill damaged beach and coastal waters and killed local wildlife in Santa Barbara, California. Pollution and garbage killed most of the fish population in Lake Erie. In Ohio, Cleveland’s Cuyahoga River caught fire due to oil that had been discharged there.
The Origins of Environmentalism • Grassroots Organizations • First Earth Day In April 1970, people around the nation, convened by environmental issues, organized a nationwide event to address environmental issues. Earth Day events have been held every year since. • Citizens Organize Following Earth Day, citizens organized groups focused on specific issues. The Audubon Society, the Wilderness Society, and the Sierra Club worked to protect wilderness areas and encourage conservation. • Natural Resources Defense Council Scientists, activists, and lawyers organized this group to pursue environmental goals through courts, legislation, and policy advocacy.
The Environmental Movement Blossoms • Legislation, Activism, and Change • Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) The 1970 Environmental Protection Act created this federal agency to work with state and local government to administer antipollution activities. • Clean Air Act Passed in 1970, this law set limits on emissions from automobiles and factories in an effort to reduce air pollution. • Clean Water Act Passed in 1972, this law restricted the discharge of pollutants and toxins into lakes, rivers, and other waterways. • Endangered Species Act Passed in 1973, this law provided methods for protecting plant and animal species that were in danger of becoming extinct.
