Policy models

1. Choosing Frameworks for Examining Policy Content and Models Policy models

2. Content looks at policy goals, mission, problem to be addressed, benefits, delivery mechanisms, etc. Process examines how decisions are made and who is involved in decision-making. Models look at content and process

3. Value criteria for examining the impact of the model. • Specific choices made for implementing or delivering the services. Often these choices are made based on value criteria. Chambers & Wedel list the following components: 1) Mission, goals, objectives 2) Forms of benefits and services 3) Eligibility rules (who gets what; how is the benefit determined) 4) Administrative issues (how delivered, due process, who is involved in decision-making). 5) Financing (who pays for the service and how is payment made). Content models focus on either

4. Do the entitlement rules direct benefits at the entire population defined to have the problem or do they only benefit a subgroup? • Do the goals and objectives of the program or policy system fit a social problem as defined? • Can this form of benefit produce a significant impact on the causal factors believed to produce the social problem? • Does the policy or program recognize or build on the strengths of assets of those affected by the social problem? In addition to value criteria, The Chambers & Wedel policy analysis model addresses four questions:

5. Equality: Everyone receives the same benefit in the same amount. Equity: Benefits are awarded based on need, circumstances, or past contributions to society. Social Justice: . Social justice involvesan ethical or moral code that emphasizes “justice and fairness to individuals, a sense of collective societal responsibility for the welfare of individuals, and a sense of altruism that accepts personal responsibility for solving problems” (Mondros & Wilson, 1994, p. 15). Rawls’ concept of using a “veil of ignorance” to allocate benefits is also associated with social justice, meaning that if someone is not aware of his or her place in society, that individual would want benefits awarded fairly or equally. Related to this is the concept of Distributive Justice. Are different groups receiving different levels of benefits. What could be done to make the distribution process fair. Adequacy: The benefit is adequate to address the problem or meet needs. (program goals are met) Coverage: (related to adequacy). Are all eligible people covered. Does the policy permit ineligible people to receive the benefit. Value Criteria used include:

6. Effectiveness: Has the policy lead to the achievement of goals. (different than whether everyone who needs the benefit has received it). • Efficiency: 1) Benefits outweigh costs 2) Policy with lowest cost and most impact has be adopted. 3) Lowest cost policy has been adopted. Additional value criteria

7. Impact on social or political rights (for example, due process, voting rights, cultural diversity, and human/civil rights) • Self-determination and Empowerment. Do people have a voice in determining the policy or benefit chosen. • Choice (related to self-determination). Can people chose the specific benefit or option received? • Individualization versus Standardization. Are services designed to address individual need or are benefits offered in “one size fits all “ regardless of need. • Individual responsibility. The principles that people should “pull themselves up by their bootstraps.” Government assistance should be kept to a minimum. • Social responsibility. Government has a responsibility to care for people in need. More criteria

8. Example: Social Security – individuals and their employers pay a tax on individual wages up to $90,000. People get back a monthly amount after retirement based on total contributions into the system. Therefore, not everyone pays the same amount or receives the same amount of benefits. (What principles are incorporated into this policy?) Policy analysts choose the criteria to be used in policy analysis

9. Example 2: TANF Individuals and Couples with children may receive welfare benefits from the state (the Federal government contributes some money to the benefits that the states are to pay). Able-bodied adults are required to complete work requirements to keep receiving benefits. Parents may only receive benefits for 5 years; they are expected to go off the system and find paid employment as soon as possible. Children may continue to receive some benefits. In some states and counties, these benefits are not paid in cash, but the government purchases services from providers (for example, landlords and utility companies) or gives vouchers so that parents will not have access to cash. Some states will not increase benefit levels if parents have additional children. (What principles are incorporated into this policy?)

10. Example of policy model that focuses on service delivery (adapted from gilbert & Specht by Hardina)

11. Process Analysis We use abstract models to try to understand how policy decisions are made. To identify the individuals and groups who influence these decisions and their role in the decision-making process. The amount of power currently held by decision makers Opportunities for those excluded from decision-making to gain power.

12. Decision-making Models Elitist (small group makes decisions and acts to exclude others) Neo-elitist (some groups excluded because of institutional practices) Pluralist (Group Theory Model)– membership in groups opposing or supporting issues change in relationship to the issue of concern. Many different individuals and groups are involved in decision-making. These groups have varying degrees of power and influence. Incremental decision-making (compromise among groups, change in small steps; art of muddling through). Public choice (money buys everything including political power).

13. Other models that we’ve already talked about include: Rational Model – decision-makers use a problem-solving approach for choosing the best policy option based on facts and logic. Incremental model –because of the difficulty of negotiating with a number of groups and individuals, new policies often represent modest modifications of existing policies. Institutional Model – examines how government agencies, private organizations, and individuals interact in order to implement a policy. Factors examined include organization structure, various jurisdictions and levels of government and or decision-making, authority to make decisions, communication among the different entities, and the flow of information.

14. The decision-making model we choose determines how we view society or a specific community Elite Minions Masses