SOCI 1301: Introduction to Sociology

1. SOCI 1301: Introduction to Sociology Social Research Methods

2. 4 Basic Research Methods in Sociology • 1.Survey Research (an objective method) • Questionnaire or interview studies • 2. Analysis of Existing Sources (Document Studies) (objective or subjective) • 3. Observational Research • Two types: unobtrusive or participant • 4. Experimentation (most objective, least variance of any method but not often used

3. Advantages/Disadvantages with the Methods • Surveys- easy to do, fast but missing data, problems in sampling, biases • Analysis of Existing Sources- easy data collection but someone else’s data • Observation-simply subjective… • Experiments- excellent control of variance but ethics and application issues keep it generally unused in sociology

4. Steps in the Research Process • 1. Define the Problem- choose subject • 2. Review the literature • 3. Formulate Hypotheses (or research questions) AND THEN… 4. Design the Methodology

5. Methodological Design • Results of a study are only as good as the methodology used. • What will be specifically measured? • Where? Identify the study environment. • Sampling? Who and how many? • A sample is a cross-section of the population under investigation that is both random and representative of that population

6. Methodology, contd. • How will the study variables be operationalized? • Variables—known or unknown quantities that affect or are affected by the presence of another variable. • Independent variables CAUSE change in Dependent variables (the EFFECT) • If A  B, A is the independent variable and B is the dependent variable • Operationalization is defining what is meant by a variable label (i.e. Crime—define it for the purposes of this study)

7. Methodology, cont’d. 5. Collect the Data 6. Data Analysis --SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) is excellent 7. Draw Conclusions--accept or Reject hypotheses or answer research questions How might someone conduct a study to determine if the full moon has any effect on the crime rate? Design a study from beginning to end using these steps.

8. Flaws in Research • Bias (question, sampling, etc.) • Teleology • Poor methodology • Misanalysis of findings • Statistical conclusions • Misinterpretation of results • Significance levels

9. Famous Research Errors • The 1936 Presidential Poll Literary Digest used auto registration lists and telephone directories from which to draw a random sample in their presidential poll to see if Franklin Roosevelt or Alfred Landon would win the race. The sample was random but not representative. The only people who had telephones in 1936 were urban dwellers and the only ones with cars (at the height of the Great Depression) were wealthier Americans. These groups would have voted for the pro-urban, pro-business candidate Landon. FDR got most of his support from rural America, underrepresented in the survey… the result of the poll was that Landon would win… FDR won easily. • This was a classic error in sampling.

10. Another Research Error • The Hawthorne Experiments Industrial Psychologist Elton Mayo (1920’s) conducted a series of experiments at Western Electric’s Hawthorne Plant in Illinois. In one trial he wanted to see if light levels in the factory would increase production. After getting an initial reading of productivity, he brought in more lighting. Productivity rose. He increased light again with the same result. About to conclude that light levels in fact DO increase productivity, he turned off the extra lights and productivity rose yet again! He turned down the lighting even more (below where it was originally) and productivity continued to rise. He could not understand what was occurring… Then he discovered that the workers had been told that an “efficiency expert” was observing their plant. The workers were simply reacting to the fact that they were being watched… some thought the tests were about keeping their jobs—so all were very productive regardless of lighting conditions. This phenomena came to be know as the Hawthorne Effect—the unintended effect(s) of a researcher’s presence. A modern example– the change in one’s driving habits when being followed by a policeman…

11. Reliability and validity • Reliability refers to consistency in measurement • Validity refers to accuracy in measurement • Good research always uses RELIABLE methods to achieve ACCURATE results.

12. Conclusions of Research • Hypotheses—statements about what one expects to find in their research—cannot be proven or disproven—they can only be accepted or rejected. Research proves nothing—it only demonstrates that a relationship may exist between two factors at some level. All relationships are not cause and effect, some are mere correlations– variables related to each other, but perhaps only indirectly…(Ex. Death rates and seeing a doctor are correlated variables—death rates are higher for people who have recently seen a doctor, but seeing a doctor does not cause death rates to rise—sickness causes BOTH.)