Chapter 13

1. Chapter 13 Groups and Teams

2. Learning Objectives • Describe the similarities and differences between groups and teams. • Identify and compare different types of groups. • Name the factors that influence group formation and development. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

3. Learning Objectives • Analyze the various structural and behavioral characteristics of groups. • Identify the advantages and disadvantages of self-managing, cross-functional, global and virtual work groups and teams. • Explain the differences in the various types of team competencies After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

4. Learning Objectives • Distinguish between the two major types of group conflict, and discuss their causes and consequences • Explain how managers can help their work groups develop into high performing teams. After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

5. Group versus Team • Group • A set of people, usually from 3 to 20 • Some degree of interaction and shared objectives • Team • A type or form of group • Higher degree of coordinated interaction • Stronger sense of members’ personal responsibility for achieving specified group outcomes • High level of members’ identification with the group

6. Team Group Individuals Team Outcomes TEAMS demonstrate enhanced: • Coordinated interaction • Personal responsibility for group outcomes • Individual identification with group Commonality of Goal Degree of Interdependence and Collaboration Adapted from Exhibit 13.1: Individuals-to-Group-to-Team Continuum

7. Basic Types of Groups Type of Group Features Examples One supervisor with a number of subordinates Relatively enduring Membership changes relatively slowly Clerical units Manufacturing assembly units Local sales managers reporting to a regional sales manager Command (Supervisory) Temporary Specific limited purpose Group members are aware of temporary nature of the group Product design teams Management information systems teams to develop upgraded computer systems Team project groups in university classes Project/Task Force Adapted from Exhibit 13.2: Types of Groups

8. Basic Types of Groups Type of Group Features Examples Committee Either permanent or ad hoc Meet only periodically Members have different permanent jobs and/or supervisors Membership typically does not represent an employee’s highest commitment Budget committees Safety committees Promotion review committees Formal Command (supervisory) Project/Task force Committee Adapted from Exhibit 13.2: Types of Groups

9. Basic Types of Groups Type of Group Features Examples Informal Group not originated by the organization Voluntary membership Obvious differences and boundaries between members and nonmembers Group of employees who lunch together on Fridays Van pool group The “water cooler group” Adapted from Exhibit 13.2: Types of Groups

10. Examples of Committees • Governance • Executive • Steering • Disaster planning • Compensation • Finance • Safety • Long-range planning • Overnight • Audit • Ethics • Public relations Adapted from Exhibit 13.2: Types of Groups

11. Characteristics of Groups and Teams Structural Characteristics • Size • Social loafing: the phenomenon of reduced effort per person in large groups • Process costs: increasing costs of coordination as group size increases • Composition • Homogeneous • Heterogeneous or diverse

12. Basic Types of Groups Type of Diversity Potential Consequences • Observable Attributes • Race • Ethnicity • Gender • Age Underlying Attributes • Values • Skills • Knowledge and information • Tenure • Affective Consequences • Satisfaction • Identification with the group • Conflict within the group Cognitive consequences • Innovation • Amount and quality of new ideas Communication-Related Consequences • Decreased frequency within group • Increased frequency outside of group Source: Adapted from Frances L. Milliken and Luis L. Martins, “Searching for Common Threads: Understanding the Multiple Effects of Diversity in Organizational Groups,” Academy of Management Review 21, no. 2 (1996), pp.402–423. Adapted from Exhibit 13.4: Examples of Diversity within Groups and Potential Consequences

13. Characteristics of Groups and Teams Structural Characteristics • Differentiated roles • Role ambiguity: a situation in which the expected behaviors for a group member are not clearly defined • Role conflict: a situation in which a member of a group faces two or more contrasting sets of expectations • Differentiated status

14. Characteristics of Groups and Teams Behavioral Characteristics • Norms: agroup’s shared standards that guide the behavior of its individual members • Characteristics of group norms • Usually established for the more important issues of concern to the group • Some apply only to certain members (like the leader), usually based on the status or particular role of those members • Vary in the degree of their acceptance by group members • Vary in how much deviation members are permitted in following them

15. Characteristics of Groups and Teams Behavioral Characteristics • Norms: agroup’s shared standards that guide the behavior of its individual members • Development of group norms • Early behaviors • Imported behaviors • Critical events • Effects of group norms • Conformity: close adherence to the group’s norms by the individual members

16. Members agree on behavior Norm is established Group members meet Members observe the behavior of others to determine what is appropriate Members decide if any past experience can contribute effective behaviors Suggested behavior is tolerated even though disagree with Members disagree on behavior Dissenting member withdraws from group New behavior is suggested Development of Group Norms Adapted from Exhibit 13.5: Example of the Development of Group Norms

17. Characteristics of Groups and Teams Behavioral Characteristics • Cohesion; the degree to which members are motivated to remain in the group • Development of group cohesion • Strengthening interpersonal attraction among group members • Generating a record of high performance and past success of the group • Fostering competition with other groups • Effects of group cohesion

18. Positive effects • Increased quality and quantity of group interactions • Strengthened adherence to group norms • Increased effectiveness in achieving group goals • Augmented individual satisfaction with group membership • Negative effects • Useful or creative ideas may be ignored if they deviate from established norms or values • Increased probability of developing groupthink • Potential decrease in intergroup cooperation • Counterproductive norms may be emphasized Effects of Group Cohesion Adapted from Exhibit 13.6: Effects of High Levels of Group Cohesion

19. Formation and Development of Groups and Teams Influences on Formation • Organizational goals • Opportunities for interaction and sharing mutual knowledge • Psychological factors • Security needs • Social support • Self-esteem needs • Status needs

20. Formation Early development Becoming a group Performing as a team Formation and Development of Groups and Teams Stages of Development Indicates progression Adapted from Exhibit 13.7: Stages of Group Development

21. Team Competencies Knowledge Skills Attitudes • Adaptability and flexibility • Mutual performance monitoring and feedback, self-correction • Coordination and task integration • Communication • Decision making and problem solving • Team orientation • Shared vision • Team cohesion • Mutual trust • Importance of teamwork • Knowledge of team mission, objectives, norms • Task sequencing • Team role • Interaction patterns • Understanding team work skills • Teammate characteristics Sources: Adapted from J. A. Cannon-Bowers and E. Salas, “A Framework for Developing Team Performance Measures in Training,” in M. T. Brannick, E. Salas, and C. Prince (eds.), Team Performance Assessment and Measurement: Theory, Methods, and Applications (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), p. 47. Adapted from Exhibit 13.9: Examples of Specific Team Competencies in Three Areas

22. Specific Generic Specific Generic Types of Team Competencies Relation to Task Content driven Team contingent Relation to Team Task contingent Transportable Adapted from Exhibit 13.10: Types of Team Competencies

23. Dealing with Team Conflict • Types of team conflict • Task (substantive): conflict conflict that focuses on differences in ideas and courses of action in addressing the issues facing a group • Relationship (affective) conflict: interpersonal differences among group members

24. Dealing with Team Conflict • Possible causes of group conflict • Task conflict • Ambiguities regarding the task • Differences in goals, objectives, and perspectives among group members • Scarcity (actual or perceived) of resources • Relationship conflict • Dissimilarities in the composition of the membership of the group • Differences in interpersonal styles of individual members • Differences in values

25. Dealing with Team Conflict • Managing intragroup conflict • Increase the ratio of substantive to relationship conflict. • Clarify and reduce task ambiguities • Get the group to focus on goals that emphasize the common interests of all group members • Avoid relationship conflicts

26. Dealing with Team Conflict • Managing intergroup conflict • Reduce unnecessary relational conflicts in intergroup interaction situations • Increase the focus on substantive differences • Emphasize organization-wide goals to increase cooperation and performance

27. Characteristics of Highly Effective Groups • Any product or service they develop is highly desired and valued by customers. • Increased cooperation among members is encouraged and achieved. • Group membership increases individual members’ feelings of satisfaction, personal growth, and overall well-being. Source: J. R. Hackman (ed.), Groups That Work (and Those That Don’t): Creating Conditions for Effective Teamwork (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990). Adapted from Exhibit 13.11: Characteristics of Highly Effective Groups

28. Ingredients Necessary for Group Effectiveness • Exert enough effort to accomplish its tasks at acceptable levels of quantity and quality • Obtain sufficient knowledge and skills to carry out its work • Use appropriate strategies to apply its effort, knowledge, and skills effectively

29. Managers’ Responsibilities for Encouraging Group Effectiveness • Develop appropriate group structures • Develop appropriate support from the organization • Obtain appropriate coaching and consultation assistance

30. Enhancing Group Effectiveness POINTS OF LEVERAGE Necessary Organizational Processes Group Structure Context Coaching and Consultation Apply ample effort Motivational structure of group task Organizational reward system Remedying coordination problems and building group commitment Acquire sufficient knowledge and skill Group composition Organizational education/ training system Remedying inappropriate “weighting” of member inputs and fostering cross-training Develop task-appropriate performance strategies Group norms that regulate member behavior and foster scanning and planning Organizational information system Remedying implementation problems and fostering creativity in strategy development Source: Adapted from J. R. Hackman (ed.), Groups That Work (and Those That Don’t): Creating Conditions for Effective Teamwork (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990), p. 13. Adapted from Exhibit 13.12: Enhancing Group Effectiveness

31. Checklist for Leadership of Groups How well do you: Encourage members to learn from each other? Recognize and praise members for their contributions? Keep key people outside the [group] informed about its accomplishments? Promptly inform members about major developments that [may] affect them? Give [group] members authority to make [at least some] important decisions? Adapted from Exhibit 13.13: A Checklist for Leaders of Groups

32. Checklist for Leadership of Groups How well do you: Openly accept and respond to feedback from [group] members? Review the [group’s] performance at the end of major tasks? Offer specific and concrete suggestions for how members can improve? Understand what motivates members to work hard? Source: Adapted from G. L. Hallam, “Seven Common Beliefs about Teams: Are They True?” Leadership in Action 17 no. 3 (1997), pp. 1–4. Adapted from Exhibit 13.13: A Checklist for Leaders of Groups