DESCENT INTO THE ABYSS: WORLD WAR I AND THE CRISIS OF THE EUROPEAN GLOBAL ORDER

1. DESCENT INTO THE ABYSS: WORLD WAR I AND THE CRISIS OF THE EUROPEAN GLOBAL ORDER

2. CAUSES OF THE WAR • LONG TERM • NATIONALISM • Rivalry between Great Powers for Status, Influence • Germany, Austria • France, Great Britain, Russia • Nationalist Aspirations • Balkan States sought to united same peoples in one state • Balkan nationalism posed threat to Russia, Austria, Turkey • Competition between national economies for profit • IMPERIALISM • The competition for foreign empires in Africa, Asia • Rivalry for influence in independent nations • Competition for markets • MILITARISM, NAVALISM • Nationalism demanded modern armies and navies • Arms race ensued • Nations could not permit rival to have better military • ALLIANCES • Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy – Rumania, Bulgaria, Turkey • Triple Entente: France, Russia, Great Britain – Serbia, Belgium • Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902 • SHORT TERM • July 24, 1914: Serb Black Hand member assassinates heir to the Austrian Throne • Austria picks a fight with Serbia, who calls on Russia for assistance • Austria asks Germany for help; Russia asks France for help • Germany attacks France through Belgium without declaration of war • European leaders allowed war to begin because they believed it would be quick, decisive

3. CAUSES OF WORLD WAR I H.M.S DREADNOUGHT

4. WAR IN EUROPE • Germany's War Plan • Germany called for a swift defeat of France, longer war with Russia • Invaded neutral Belgium, Luxembourg without declaration of war • Failure to defeat France set stage for 3 years of stalemate • Military dictatorship gradually replaced Kaiser, German Reichstag on running war • Allied War Plans • French planned to attack into Alsace-Lorraine to recover lost land • French military planners spoke of elan and e’spririt de corps to overcome technology, German • Russia was to swiftly mobilize and attack Germany, Austria in the east • Western Front • Soldiers dug trenches length of the front; machine guns and artillery dominate battlefield • Neither side could advance against the other's defenses. • Allies and Germans both began to use technology to break deadlock • Both sides imposed blockades on the other using navies, submarines • Eastern Front • Aristocratic officers, peasant soldiers of Russia unprepared; Germany had world’s most modern army • Virtual destruction of the tsarist armies and steady loss of territory to Germany • Nicholas II, who had taken direct control of the front, incompetent • Germany quickly developed a war of maneuver: no static front • Italian and Balkan Fronts • Russia did well against the Austro-Hungarians • Bulgaria joins Central Powers in 1915 • Serbia, Montenegro overrun by Central Powers in 1915 • Italy joined allies to gain territory but did very poorly. • Rumania joined allies to regain Transylvania and quickly overrun

5. PLANS OF WAR, REALITIES OF WAR

6. PROPAGANDA OF WAR

7. TECHNOLOGY AT WAR • Role of Technology • Allies, Central Powers tried to break stalemate using new weapons • New weapons include: • Germans: Submarines, poisonous gas, bombers, fighters • Allies: Tanks, destroyers, mass produced freighters • Both sides had to develop new foods, techniques to replace what was lost due to failed trade • German unrestricted submarine warfare led to American entry to the war in 1917 • Technology was one way conflict became a total war The Fighter The Tank The Bomber The Machine Gun The Zeppelin The Submarine or U-Boat

8. MIDDLE EAST & WORLD WAR I • The Ottoman Empire • Sided with Germany as UK, Russia had proven enemies • Allies try to force way through Dardanelles • Needed to open supply route to Russia • Gallipoli was a disaster for ANZAC troops used • Cost UK support amongst Australia, New Zealand • British invade Middle East • Used Indian, colonial troops • Twin pushes - through Palestine, Iraq • Capture Jerssalem, Baghdad before 1918 • Russia and the Turks • Russian armies drove Turks back into Anatolia • Christians welcomed Russians • Germans rushed to aid Turks, stop Russian advances • Military failures led to a genocidal assault on Armenian Christians, • Arab Revolt • Ottomans ruled Hejaz (Mecca, Medina) and south coast of Persian Gulf • Arabs under Shariff of Hejaz rose in rebellion against Turks • Seek Arab state(s), independence • With British aid, cut railways in region • Move up into Jordan, Syria from desert • Capture Damascus before British arrive • Allied Promises • French, British promise Arabs independence after war • Secretly made plans to partition area amongst Allies (Sykes-Pikot Treaty) • Promised Jews a homeland too (Balfour Declaration)

9. A WORLD AT WAR • The War Outside Europe • Fighting spread to the colonies • Troops from the colonies were recruited for war in Europe • British naval power contributed greatly to the globalization of the war • The Indian Army provided much of Britain’s overseas armies for all fronts • Indian Army instrumental in Mesopotamia, Africa • Asia-Pacific • Japan seized German possessions in Asia , Pacific • China joined war to get voice at peace conference • China sent 100,000 porters to Europe to free up troops • Germans sent their East Asian fleet on cruise to raid commerce in Pacific, Indian Ocean • Africa • Allies quickly overran all German colonies except East Africa • Germans in East Africa led by a military genius who was never defeated • Germans invaded Belgian Congo, British East Africa, and Mozamibique • The Dominions contributed supplies and troops to the British effort • Many African divisions served in Europe, Middle East • The United States • Germany made a major mistake with unrestricted submarine warfare – US hated it • Germany made a major mistake with Zimmerman Telegraph to Mexico • The U.S. entry into the war made it a major global power • U.S. supplies and troops led Germany to believe it needed to launch a major offensive.

10. THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION • The Eastern Front • Germany completely outclassed Russia; Russia only able to make headway against Austria • Germany simply was overstrained by two fronts and could not devote troops for a quick victory • 1916 • Russia is in trouble militarily and collapse near at any time • Germans have cut two of three supply routes from West to Russia (Baltic, Black Seas) • Allies forced to resupply Russia either through Murmansk in north or Siberia, both of which froze • Troops are ready to mutiny as underfed, peasants are starving and workers are upset • 1st Russian Revolution or Democratic Revolution • February 1917 • Troops mutiny and refuse imperial orders • Workers, soldiers, and sailors join revolt; form soviets or councils • New government formed: forces tsar to abdicate and declares Russia a republic • The Kerensky Government • A socialist government without much power – too many competing interests • Under pressure from Allies continues war, delays reforms • Soviets infuriated, infiltrated by the Bolsheviks (Communists) • Communists organize private army – Red Guard • Conservatives attempt to halt spread of socialism with military takeover – Red Guard defeats it • 2nd Russian Revolution or Communist Revolution • October 1917 Red Guard and supporters seize control of state from Socialists • Create a communist government • Russia signed peace treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany • Left war freeing German army in East for western front

11. IMAGINING THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION Proletariat of the World, Unite! V. I. Lenin The Tsar, The Rich, The Church As Enemies Of The People Join the Red Army! Trotsky on Guard!

12. THE END OF THE WAR • The Home Fronts in Europe • Soldiers at front became angry with political leaders • Disturbed by civilians who continued to support the war • Governments • Took direct control of many industries • Rise of strong centralized state bureaucracies • Made use of sophisticated propaganda • Workers and Women • Unions, socialist leaders increasingly tied to government; workers rejected support of war • Labor protests in Russia helped spark the fall of the Tsar • Women's participation in labor force increased • Many pushed out of work after war ended • Participation in the war effort helped them gain vote in Britain, Germany, and USA • The Return to Offensive Warfare • Failure of April 1918 offensive by the Germans • US troops arrived quicker than expected and halted German advance • Collapse of Austrians, Bulgars, Turks led Germany to agree to armistice in November 1918 • Revolution in Germany 1918 – 1919 • Soviet, Socialist revolutions lead to collapse of German empire, creation of a Republic • Many Germans came to blame the civilian government that replaced the Kaiser. • Cost • Immense destruction in Europe and very high death tolls (10 million) • Allies owed billions to the US: had to collect billions in reparations from Germany • Compounded by worldwide influenza epidemic that killed 50 million more.

13. PARIS PEACE TREATIES • 14 Points • Woodrow Wilson's plan for a non-punitive peace • Germany agreed to an armistice based on 14 Points • Thwarted by the Entente allies • Britain and France demanded reparations • Demanded a treaty that blamed Germany for the war • Paris Peace Conference, 1919 • Allied leaders assembled in Paris • Germany was deliberately humiliated • Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empires were dismembered • Russia not invited as Allies were at war with Bolshevism • Colonies of European Nations, China • Largely ignored • Envoys were often not even consulted

14. NEW BORDERS:COLLAPSE OF FOUR EMPIRES

15. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS • Wilson’s 14th Point • Only part of the 14th Points enacted • US Senate did not ratify the treaty • USSR, former Central Power nations were not admitted • The League of Nations • Goal: International organization for nations to consult, avoid war • Reality: had no real power to enforce peace, punish aggressors • Reality: France, UK dominate • Colonies not represented

16. RISE OF NATIONALISM IN AFRICA, ASIA • World War I impacted colonies • Colonial Contribution • African, Asian troops conscripted for European armies • Battles of Marne (1914) won with assistance of Senegalese troops • British conquer Middle East largely using Indian Army • Colonies served as important sources of food, raw materials • During the course of the war • European vulnerability became evident • European troops withdrawn from colonies for European fronts • Administrative personnel were recalled • Africans, Asians filled posts previously reserved for Europeans • To maintain support Europeans made many promises • Promised independence • But they often failed to fulfill them after the war • War cast doubts on claims of European superiority • Its disruptions bolstered nationalist movements. • Africa, Southwest Asia, Asia ignored at Paris Peace • German colonies divided amongst victors as mandates • Arabs in Turkish Empire become mandates of UK, France

17. INDIA • Nationalist Challenge to the British Raj • India colonized long before Africa, Asia • Was first to establish independence movements • Western-educated minorities organized politically • Sought to bring about the end or modification of colonial regimes • Indian National Congress • Regional associations of Western-educated Indians • Most often urbanized elite • Formed Indian National Congress party in 1885 • Primary function of early party was to present grievances to British • Most of the issues concerned the Indian elite, not the poor • Despite limited aims, Congress party allowed the formation of Indian identity • Social Foundations of a Mass Movement • British economic and social policies • Helped the Congress party attract a mass following • Marginalized all Indians including elite • Indians • Supported the massive costs for the colonial army, high-salaried bureaucrats • Tolerated the importation of British-manufactured goods. • Problems among the peasantry including shortfalls of food supplies • Induced nationalists to blame the British policies • Encouraged peasants to shift from the production of food to commercial crops.

18. INDIAN OPTIONS • The Rise of Militant Nationalism • Some nationalists such as B. G. Tilak emphasized Hindusim • Tilak, supporters used Hindu religious festivals as means of recruitment. • Tilak urged the boycott of British manufactured goods • Tilak's conservative Hinduism frightened moderates, Muslims, Sikhs • Tilak's support for violence led to his arrest, deportation • Some Hindus • Embraced terrorism as a means of ending British rule • Terrorist groups favored secret organizations • Targeted British officials and public buildings • British suppression, lack of mass support reduced threats • Peaceful schemes for protest drew support from Tilak, terrorists • Congress Party lawyers emerged as leaders of nationalist movement • All India Muslim League and Muhammad Ali Jinnah • League founded in 1906 to represent Muslim interests • Jinnah joined in 1916 and helped bring Congress Party and League together • The Emergence of Gandhi and the Nationalist Struggle • India played a significant role in World War I • Even the nationalist leaders of India supported the war effort • Wartime inflation reduced standards of living among the Indian peasants • Produced famine in some regions. • Following the war • Nationalists were frustrated by the British refusal to move directly toward independence. • Initial promise of the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms of 1919 • Offset by the Rowlatt Act, which limited Indian civil rights. • Frustrations led to the Rise of Gandhi • Permitted Gandhi to build a nationwide protest against colonialism • Gandhi combined the qualities of a Hindu mystic with the acumen of a Western-educated lawyer • Both peasants and the middle classes supported his leadership • His boycotts, campaigns of civil resistance made him acceptable to both radical, moderate nationalists • As a Hindu mystic, Gandhi could mobilize widespread support for his movement

19. WAR, NATIONALISM IN THE MIDDLE EAST • In the years after World War I • Ottoman rule collapsed • Old Ottoman state to be partitions between Allies, Greeks, Armenians • Only a small Turkish state built around Ankara remained • Constantinople placed under international control • Greeks seek more lands in Asia Minor, invade rump Turkish state • Rise of Turkish Nationalism • Turks rally to Ataturk (Mustafa Kemal): organizes, arms Turkish armies • Drive Greek armies out of Asia Minor • Negotiates with Allies for return of Turkish lands • Abolishes Caliphate, Sultanate in 1922 and creates a republic • Begins process of westernization, modernization of Turkish state, culture • Massive liberties granted to women – first such move in Middle East • Arabia • Wahhabist State in Central Arabia Prior to World War I • Wahhabis were puritanical religious fanatics • Sought to cleanse Islam of all foreign influences • Religious sect allied to Saud family ruling central Arabia • Arab Uprising against Turks • Began in Hejaz (region containing Mecca and Medina) under Hashemite Emirs • After World War I Wahhabists conquer Hejaz and expel pro-British Hashemite emirs • Create unified Arabian state called Saudi Arabia • British make Hashemite emirs rulers of Transjordan and Iraqi mandates

20. NATIONALISM IN EGYPT • The British and Egypt • British occupation in 1882 following Ahmad Orabi Rebellion • Left the Egyptians with both Turkish khedives, British overlords • British left Khedival government in place but ran Egyptian foreign policy, defense • Lord Cromer directed British policy in Egypt. • Attempted economic reforms to reduce debts, improve irrigation, public works. • The masses of the Egyptian population realized little benefit from the changes. • Ayan (greater landlords) able to extend control farther into the countryside • The great estates came to monopolize most Egyptian land • Small landholders reduced to tenancy. • Resistance to the British administration of Egypt • Resistance by the elite • Emerged from within the lower officer ranks of Egyptian army, • Emerged from within the ranks of the Egyptian business classes • Journalists were particularly prominent in the nationalist movement • Journalists attacked the British administration and British racial attitudes • Three nationalist parties were created • To forestall more violent nationalist movements • The British granted a new constitution to Egypt • Allowed parliamentary representation • When World War I broke out, the British suspended the constitution and imposed martial law • Revolt in Egypt 1919 • Martial law in Egypt during World War I imposed great hardships on the peasantry • British refusal to allow Egyptian delegation to attend the peace conferences • This touched off a rebellion but British able to regain control • British forced to recognize nationalist Wafd party under Sa'dZaghlul • Between 1922 and 1936 • British forces were progressively withdrawn to the Suez Canal zone • They reserved their right to defend their interests in Egypt • The Wafd party failed to enact significant social or economic reforms.

21. ARAB MANDATES • Entente powers broke promises made to Arabs • Allies promised Arabs independent states in Middle East following War • Sikes-Pikot Treaty • Divided Middle East between Allied Nations • Gave Arab lands to European powers • Arabs expected independent Arab states • British and French forces occupied Ottoman empire • Created artificial states within the League of Nations • Called Mandates, placed under control of British, French • Allies were supposed to prepare Arabs for independence • French did not, British did • In Syria, Iraq, Lebanon • Arab resistance to the mandate system was common • British eventually placed Hashemite King on Iraqi throne • Palestine, Balfour Declaration and Zionism • Zionist movement largely Eastern Europe until 1894 • Zionists were Jews seeking to create Jewish homeland in Palestine • Theodor Herzl • Mobilized West European Zionism • Formed the World Zionist Organization • British Foreign Minister Balfour promised Zionists in 1917 support for Jewish homeland • Pogroms against Jewish communities accelerated migration to Palestine • Both Zionism, British takeover of Palestine seemed to violate assurances • Rising Arab opposition caused the British to limit Zionist settlement in Palestine • Zionists thus began to arm themselves in order to resist both British, Arab opposition • Arabs in Palestine remained without a voice concerning the fate of their region.

22. PROMISES MADE, PROMISES BROKEN

23. AFRICA • During World War I • Most Western-educated African elites remained loyal to the colonial regimes. • The war effort disrupted African economies • Drew heavily on African manpower: Senegalese, West African, South African troops helped allies • German resistance led to a guerrilla war in East Africa for four years • Women assumed many traditionally male roles during war • After the war • Europeans kept few promises of economic improvement • This led to strikes and civil disobedience • Tariffs and restrictions to trade hurt weak African economies • Dissatisfaction with colonialism spread • First nationalist movements appeared in Africa in the 1920s • Emerged in the guise of unworkable pan-African organizations • Charismatic African-American leaders had significant roles in the formation of pan-African movements • In French Africa • A literary genre, négritude arose • Celebrated black culture as an attack on European racist attitudes • Influenced by the Harlem Renaissance in the US; Surrealism, World Socialism • Movement was very influential in Caribbean, Brazil, too linking areas of African diaspora • French Africans often took path of assimilation into French culture AS BLACKS to gain rights • Little involvement of Africans in any aspect of colonial government – reserved for French Europeans • In British colonies • British utilized African policemen, lower bureaucrats, civil servants, magistrates • Their influence in colonial government grew to form a nationalist and Pan-African movement • Actual political parties were slow to emerge • Political associations began the process of developing a mass base and agitating for political reform • Educated African elite and businessmen often became spokesmen for nationalist movements

24. 1920s: CHANGING TIMES IN AFRICA

25. GLOBAL CONNECTIONS • Changing Realities • World War I undermined Europe's global dominance • At end of war the United States was clearly the greatest world power • Rise of United States and Japan in world influence • First non-European powers to do so broke European monopoly • Communism as Anti-Imperialism • Revolution broke out in Russia and the East • Soviet state challenged traditional western dominance • Offered an alternative to western capitalist, democratic models • Socialism as Change • Socialists gained ground in the western democracies • Replaced more traditional conservatives and liberals • Changes in Gender Roles • Gender roles changed dramatically in Western Europe, in Russia • Began to change in Eastern Europe, Turkey • During war, many women allowed to assume economic roles which they had never had • After World War I many Western states gave women the vote • The War Encouraged Economic Changes • Increased industrialization in the US and changing industries in war powers significant • Export by Latin American nations added non-European nations to the Global Economic scene • Beginning of Decolonialization • The empires of the Entente nations actually grew but change had begun • Liberation movements gained ground as a result of the war • Successful nationalist revolutions in Saudi Arabia and Turkey offered hope • Indian independence movement had gained in influence • Africans granted roles during war which they had not had before

26. WHO ARE THEY? • Archduke Franz Ferdinand • Gavrilo Princip • Nicholas II • Georges Clemenceau • David Lloyd George • Woodrow Wilson • B. G. Tilak • Mohandas K. Gandhi • Lord Cromer • Ataturk • Hussein • Ibn Saud • Leon Pinsker • Theodor Herzl • Alfred Dreyfus • Marcus Garvey • W. E. B. Du Bois • Leopold Sedar Senghor

27. WHAT IS IT? • Sarajevo (Bosnia) • Western Front • Eastern Front • Gallipoli • Armenian Holocaust • 14 Points • Self-Determination • League of Nations • National Congress Party • Morley-Minto Reforms • Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms • Rowlatt Act • Satyagraha • Effendi • Dinshawai Incident • Mandates • Zionist • Balfour Declaration • Wafd Party • Pan-Africanism • Negritude Movement