In a Nutshell – Key Questions and Concepts on Historical Eras

1. In a Nutshell – Key Questions and Concepts on Historical Eras By M.A. Rivera

2. Colonial Era and American Revolution – In a Nutshell • Early 1600’s British settle American colonies because of adventure, fortune, and liberty • Ideas of representative government, religious freedom, and freedom of the press were well-established by the time of the American Revolution • After French and Indian War in 1763 – tensions between U.S. and Britain increase • At end of American Revolution, Britain recognizes U.S. as independent

3. What major religious groups settled in the original thirteen colonies? • Puritans – Massachusetts • Roman Catholics – Maryland (Chesapeake Bay) • Quakers – Pennsylvania • Anglicans in the southern colonies • Puritan intolerance led to establishment of Rhode Island

4. What was the last of the thirteen colonies? • Georgia • Founded as haven for debtors • Buffer between Spanish and English colonies

5. What was the Great Awakening? • Wave of religious enthusiasm in the late 1730s to 1760s • Characterized by emotionalism and individualism • Leads to creation of new religious groups and strengthens belief in religious freedom

6. Why did the English go to war against the French and Indians in 1754? • A struggle for control of the Ohio Valley • France lost empire in North America

7. What caused the American Revolution? • French and Indian War ended • British government tried to regulate and tax colonies to pay for the war • Policies spark protests that lead to the war in 1775

8. When did Americans declare independence from Britain? • One year after fighting for: • “rights of Englishmen” • “taxation without representation • Inspired by Thomas Paine’s Common Sense • Written by Thomas Jefferson

9. What significant battles led to the American victory over the English forces? • American victory in Saratoga, New York inspired French to actively support Americans • Ends in 1781 in the Battle of Yorktown, Virginia led by George Washington defeated General Cornwallis’ British army • Treaty of Paris of 1783 puts an end to the American Revolution

10. The New Republic – In a Nutshell • Weaknesses in national government under Articles of Confederation led to Constitutional Convention where new, more powerful central government was created • 1790s – George Washington presides over creation of new government • Political parties created during Washington’s tenure • Party division, territorial growth and a war in Europe shape U.S. history in the early 19th century

11. What event prompted delegates to write a new constitution? • Daniel Shays led a rebellion of debtor farmers against MA government in winter of 1786-1787 • Unsuccessful but made prominent Americans aware that the Confederation Congress was powerless to protect the nation from invasion or domestic violence

12. Who attended the Constitutional Convention? • Rhode Island boycotts • 55 delegates from 12 states attended Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia in 1787 • George Washington of Virginia presided • Alexander Hamilton of New York spoke in favor of strong central government • Ben Franklin of Pennsylvania gave prestige • James Madison of Virginia considered the “Father of the Constitution” • John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Patrick Henry did not attend

13. What was the Virginia Plan? • Edmund Randolph of Virginia introduces plan of • bicameral (two houses) legislature • an executive elected by the legislature, and • a separate judiciary • Lower house elected by people, upper house elected by lower house • Representation based on population

14. What was the New Jersey Plan? • William Paterson of New Jersey • Plan presents a desire of small states to have equal representation in unicameral (one house) legislature

15. What was the Great Compromise? • Delegates from Connecticut introduce compromise • Federal legislature is bicameral • Upper house (Senate) based on equal representation from each state • Lower House (House of Representatives) based on population

16. What was the Three-Fifths Compromise? • Delegates decided to count slaves as 3/5 of a person for both taxation and representation.

17. What form of government was created by the U.S. Constitution? • Republican form of government based on separation of powers between three branches of government • Executive • Legislative • Judicial • Federal system of government that separates powers between national government and state government

18. What arguments were presented in the debate over ratification of the U.S. Constitution? • Antifederalists • Believed new government would destroy power of the states and not protect individual rights • Federalists • Believed strengthening central government would provide stability and power to prevent foreign domination and domestic rebellion • Believed creating a republican government with limited power would protect the rights of the people

19. When was the Constitution ratified? • 1788 after required 9 of 13 states voted for adopting the new form of government • Only Rhode Island and North Carolina voted against ratification • New government took power in 1789

20. What were the major achievements of George Washington and the First Congress? • Established Executive Departments • State, Treasury, and War • Created a Federal Court System with a Supreme Court • Passed a Revenue Tariff • Adapted the first ten amendments (Bill of Rights) and ratified them in 1791

21. What policies did Alexander Hamilton adopt to strengthen the nation’s financial policies? • To fund federal debt, Secretary of Treasury raised money through • Excise taxes • Tariffs • Sale of western land • Proposed federal bank take over states’ debts • Created of strong national currency • Created the Bank of the United States, a private bank where federal government deposited federal funds • In showing financial responsibility, Hamilton’s policies strengthened the power of the national government

22. What criticisms were leveled at Hamilton’s financial policies? • Tariff created higher prices – states didn’t like paying other states’ debts • Farmers in Pennsylvania protested excise tax on whiskey (Whiskey Rebellion) – a protest that ended when Washington sent in Federal troops • Bank of the United States criticized for favoring the wealthy, northerners and lack of constitutionality

23. How did the French Revolution affect the United States? • At first, most Americans support French Revolution in 1789 • Attitudes changed when France declared war on Britain, Spain and Holland • President Washington proclaimed neutrality in the European conflict

24. Why were political parties created? • Political and economic differences between Hamilton and Jefferson launched the two political parties • Federalists supported • Hamilton • Strong central government • Loose interpretation of the Constitution • Bank of the United States • Revenue tariffs • England in its war against France • Democratic-Republicans • Supported Jefferson and opposed all of the other Federalist ideals

25. What were the most important issues during John Adams’ presidency? • Served at a time of great division between political parties and a potential war with France • Federalists, controlled the government, passed the Alien and Sedition Acts to silence Democratic-Republicans’ criticisms and prevent war with France

26. What happened in the election of 1800? • Tie in the Electoral College between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson • Jefferson elected by the House of Representatives to be the 3rd President of the U.S. • Established important precedent of transition between two different political parties from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans

27. Who was John Marshall? • Chief Justice from 1801-1835 • Handed down decisions that strengthened the national government and the power of the Supreme Court • Supported private property • Helped establish the American free market system

28. Westward Expansion – In a Nutshell • A period of strong nationalism emerged in 1815 after the end of the second war with Great Britain • The Age of Jackson (1824-1840) was marked by new system of party politics, numerous political changes, and a variety of social reform movements • The U.S. fulfilled many expansionist goals in the 1840s • Before 1860 the North and South separated by economic, political and cultural differences that became more difficult to compromise • After the election of Abraham Lincoln, several southern states seceded from the Union, an action that led to the American Civil War in 1861

29. How did the United States gain Louisiana? • Thomas Jefferson, against his strict interpretation of the Constitution principle purchased Louisiana from France • Doubles size of the U.S. • Gives the U.S. full control of the Mississippi River

30. Why did the U.S. go into war in 1812? • 1810 – New generation of political leaders known as War Hawks elected to Congress • Pressure President James Madison to go to War • Causes: • England’s violation of Freedom of Seas • Problems Americans had with Indians in the Northwest • Desire to annex Canada (territorial growth) • Impressments • Treaty of Ghent restores conditions to how they were before

31. What is the Era of Good Feelings? • Period following the War of 1812 characterized by strong nationalism and only one major political party

32. What was the American System? • Henry Clay introduced the American System • Proposal to make the U.S. economically self-sufficient • Plan includes a Second Bank of the United States, protective tariffs and internal improvements at a federal expense

33. What were the most important issues of James Monroe’s presidency? • Obtained Florida from Spain • Issued the Monroe Doctrine, declaring that U.S. would not allow European colonization or interference in Latin America

34. Who won the election of 1824? • Andrew Jackson won the popular vote and the most electoral votes; he did not have the majority of the electoral votes • John Quincy Adams elected president by the House of Representatives

35. How did the election of 1824 bring the Era of Good Feelings to an End? • Jackson’s supporters charged that John Quincy Adams’ election was a “corrupt bargain” where Henry Clay was made secretary of state in return for his support of Adams. • Brought about two political parties • Supporters of Jackson – Democrats • Supporters of Adams and Clay - Whigs

36. What was Jacksonian Democracy? • Refers to the general extension of democracy between 1824 and 1828 • Primary from lower classes in rebellion to aristocracy • Contradicted their idea of equality as pro-slavery and anti-Indian

37. How did Jackson expand the powers of the presidency? • Used his veto power extensively • Defied Supreme Court orders • Justified his actions by claiming that the presidency was the only office representing all the people

38. What was Jackson’s policy toward American Indians? • Policy of “removal” • Believed Indian land must be open to economic development • Forced natives to move west of the Mississippi River

39. How did Jackson destroy the Bank of the United States? • Congress voted to re-charter the 2nd Bank of the United States in 1832. • Jackson vetoed the Recharter Bill. • Withdrew government funds from Bank and placed them in state banks or “pet” banks • Led to runaway inflation • Jackson issues Specie Circular (executive order states that all land must be paid in gold/silver) which leads to the Panic of 1837

40. Who succeeded Andrew Jackson as president? • 1836 – Martin Van Buren – hand-picked by Jackson to be president. • Later blamed for Panic of 1837 and not re-elected. • 1840 – William Henry Harrison elected president with John Tyler as vice president. • Both parties seek votes • Known as first “modern” election • Harrison died after 1 month in office • Tyler 1st Vice-President elevated to President due to the death of a President

41. How did the election of 1844 change the U.S.? • James K. Polk, a Democrat, elected on platform of • “Re-annexation” of Texas • “Re-occupation” of Oregon • U.S. annexed independent Texas • In treaty with Great Britain, Oregon territory is annexed • Annexed land after war with Mexico • Mexican-American War began after General Zachary Taylor clashed with Mexican troops near the Rio Grande • U.S. gains land after Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo for $15 million

42. What were the differences between northern and southern states before the Civil War? • North • Growing manufacturing economy • Several political changes • Variety of dynamic reform movements • South • Remained primarily agricultural based on cotton and plantation system

43. What were the political differences between northern and southern states before the Civil War? • Northerners generally supported • The Bank of the United States • A protective tariff • Internal improvements at federal expense • Prohibition of slavery in the new territories • Southerners generally disagreed with Northerners on these issues

44. What did northerners think of slavery? • Although abolitionist movements were growing in the North, most did not sympathize with abolitionists until the 1850s • Abolitionist supporters felt it was morally wrong • Abolitionists believed • Slavery led to inhumane treatment of blacks • Violated principles of democracy • Violated teachings of the Bible

45. What did southerners think of slavery? • Although most southerners did not own slaves, they supported slavery • Argued: • It always existed • Was more humane than northern capitalism • Was sanctioned by the Bible

46. How were the differences settled before the 1850s? • End of Mexican-American War in 1848 marked a turning point in the conflict. • Land obtained intensified debate over slavery in the new territories • Difficult to compromise because addition of states would offset the political balance in government especially the Senate

47. What was the Compromise of 1850? • California became a free state and Congress adopted a Fugitive Slave Law. • Slave trade abolished in District of Columbia (D.C.) • Slavery in New Mexico and Utah based on popular sovereignty • Texas boundary would be reduced • Texas debt paid by the Federal government

48. What effect did Uncle Tom’s Cabin have on sectional differences? • Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe • Stirred conscience of the North • Increased anti-slavery sentiment

49. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act? • Authored by Senator Stephen Douglas • Passed as provision for creating territorial governments in Kansas and Nebraska • Repealed the Missouri Compromise by ensuring that the slavery issues was not solved by the 36⁰ 30’ line but by popular sovereignty

50. Why was the Republican Party created? • Whig party split • Northerners looking for alternative to Democratic Party’s support of popular sovereignty • Kansas-Nebraska Act passing leads to creation of Republican Party – opposed to popular sovereignty and extension of slavery into new territories