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Chapter 7

Chapter 7. Employment. ________________________. Women’s Employment Rates and Occupational Choices. Employment rates Dramatic increase in women’s labor force participation in recent decades 1970: 30% of married women with children under age 6 in paid labor force

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Chapter 7

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  1. Chapter 7 Employment ________________________

  2. Women’s Employment Rates and Occupational Choices Employment rates • Dramatic increase in women’s labor force participation in recent decades • 1970: 30% of married women with children under age 6 in paid labor force • 2007: 62% of married women with children under age 6 in paid labor force • Explanations for increased participation • Women’s movement • Higher educational attainment • Economic necessity __________________________

  3. Women’s Employment Rates and Occupational Choices Occupational choices • 20 occupations with lowest percentage of women: construction, installation, maintenance, repair; production; transportation • 20 occupations with highest percentage of women: health care, office and administrative work, teaching, caring for young children • Other dimensions of occupational segregation by gender • Occupational segregation by ethnicity • Ethnic differences among women not as great as gender differences __________________________

  4. Gender Differences in Leadership and Job Advancement Leadership positions • Women constitute half of paid labor force, but very few of top leadership positions • Glass escalator: Even in female-dominated fields, men often earn more and are promoted faster • Glass ceiling: Invisible but powerful barriers that prevent women from advancing beyond a certain level • Glass cliff: Women leaders more likely to be given units with high risk of failure • Token women often are perceived and treated negatively • Sticky floor: Women have little or no job ladder, or path, to higher positions • Maternal wall: Women get less desirable assignments, lower salaries, and more limited advancement opportunities once they become mothers (Rhode & Williams, 2007) ___________________________

  5. Gender Differences in Leadership and Job Advancement Barriers that hinder women’s advancement • Limited mentors and social networks • Discrimination: Unfavorable treatment based on gender • Stereotypes • Successful manager seen as having male gender-stereotypic traits • Discrimination against women managers who are not “feminine” • In-group favoritism • Perceived threat __________________________

  6. Gender Differences in Leadership and Job Advancement Women as leaders • Three types of leaders • Transformational: Set high standards and serve as role models by mentoring and empowering their subordinates • More characteristic of women leaders • Linked to higher ratings of effectiveness • Transactional: Clarify workers’ responsibilities, monitor their work, reward them for meeting objectives, correct their mistakes • More characteristic of men leaders • Laissez-faire: Take little responsibility for managing _________________________

  7. Gender Differences in Salaries Comparative salaries • In 2009, women earned 77 cents for each dollar men earned • Salary discrepancies by gender and ethnicity • Salary discrepancies by gender and age • Salary discrepancies by gender, ethnicity, and education • Salary discrepancies within selected occupations • Cumulative effect of gender pay gap __________________________

  8. Gender Differences in Salaries Reasons for differences in salaries • Gender differences in investments in the job • Salaries reflect investments in human capital; because of family responsibilities, women, relative to men, reduce their investment in their education and jobs • Occupational segregation • Women’s occupations devalued relative to men’s • Salary negotiations • Women less likely to bargain • Wage discrimination • Differential payment for work that has equal or very similar value to employer • Motherhood penalty • Mothers earn significantly less than childless women, even with comparable education, work experience, and job characteristics • Fatherhood wage premium • Fathers earn more than men without children _________________________

  9. Women’s Job Satisfaction Gender differences in satisfaction • No gender differences in overall job satisfaction • Many sources of satisfaction • Paradox of the contented female worker __________________________

  10. Women’s Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction of sexual minorities • Workplace discrimination based on sexual orientation • Related to lower satisfaction, higher psychological distress • Concerns about coming out • Benefits • Drawbacks __________________________

  11. The Older Woman Worker Employment rates • Why do older women work? • Entering the workforce in later life • Age discrimination in the workplace • Double standard of aging __________________________

  12. Changing the Workplace Organizational procedures and policies • Pay equity: pay policies based on workers’ worth, not their gender or ethnicity • Affirmative action: positive steps taken by employing agency to ensure that workplace provides equal opportunity for all • Misperceptions of affirmative action • Effectiveness of affirmative action • Other organizational procedures __________________________

  13. Changing the Workplace Strategies for women • Get access to information • Join with others who experience similar inequities __________________________

  14. Retirement The retirement decision • Factors that influence the decision to retire • Gender differences in experiences of retirement • Effect of work identity on women’s retirement decision • Reasons for early retirement • Health • Caregiver role _________________________

  15. Retirement Adjustment to retirement • Initial time of marital conflict • Eventual good adjustment • Women may take longer • Associated with good health, adequate income, high activity level • Effects of multiple roles ___________________________

  16. Retirement Leisure activities in retirement • Gender differences • Women: social activities, crafts • Men: physical activities, spectator sports • Factors affecting leisure activity • Age • Amount of free time • Availability of transportation and programs • Varieties of leisure activity • Pursue interests or more education • Volunteer • Become an advocate or activist __________________________

  17. Economic Issues in Later Life Poverty • Income gap between women and men increases in retirement • Lower lifetime earnings for women • Reduced time in labor force • Less accumulated income from savings and investments • Marital status __________________________

  18. Economic Issues in Later Life Retirement income: Planning ahead • Social Security • Spousal benefits • Dual entitlement • Pensions • Work patterns • Vesting • Nonportability • Spousal benefits • Savings and investments ___________________________

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