The Epic

1. The Epic Beowulf

2. Contents - Background and origins - The Beowulf manuscript - Beowulf – the hero - Story, characters and themes - Authorship - Language and verse form

3. Background and origins Beowulf is one of the oldest English epic poem. In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of a Germanic tribe from southern Sweden called the Geats (Gauts), travels to Denmark to help defeat a monster named Grendel. This poem, about Danish and Swedish kings and heroes was preserved in England because the English people are descendents of Germanic tribes called Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Thus Beowulf tells a story about the old days in their homeland.

4. The background of the poem is historical. Hrothgar and his court are known to us from various sources; Hygelac, the king of the Gauts was killed in an unsuccessful raid on the Rhine estuary in 520 according to Gregory of Tours. The wars between the Gauts and Swedes, that form a background of the second part are also historical. Of Beowulf we know nothing, though he may have existed also.

5. The Beowulf manuscript The precise date of the manuscript is debated, but most estimates place it close to 1000. Traditionally the poem’s date of composition has been estimated, on linguistic and other grounds, as approximately 650-800. More recently, doubt has been raised about the linguistic criteria for dating, with some scholars suggested a date as late as the 11th century, near the time of the manuscript’s copying.

6. The poem appears in what is today called the Beowulf manuscript or Nowell Codex (Cotton Vitellius A. XV), along with other works. The manuscript is the product of two different scribes, the second and more accurate scribe taking over at line 1939 of Beowulf. The poem is known only from a single manuscript. The spellings in the surviving copy of the poem mix the West Saxon and Anglian dialects of Old English, though they are predominantly West Saxon.

7. Beowulf –the hero Beowulf scholar Tolkien noted that the name Beowulf almost certainly means bee-hunter in Old English. The name could therefore be a kenning for bear due to the bear’s love of honey.

8. In the poem Beowulf is not represented as the mighty warrior of the heroic sagas who knows nothing outside the battlefield and the beer-hall, whose virtues can be summed up in three words-strength, courage and loyalty. He belongs to another age and embodies another ideal - the Christian one. Of course he too possesses the pagan virtues, he is after all a prince and a warrior, but the virtues that the poet stresses are of another order – mildness, courtesy, love of duty and justice, but above all mildness. Several times the idea is expressed that the days of violence and cruelty are over.

9. Story, characters and themes

10. Story Beowulf begins with a history of the great Danish King Scyld (whose funeral is described in the Prologue). King Hrothgar, Scyld's great-grandson, is well loved by his people and successful in war. He builds a lavish hall, called Heorot, to house his vast army, and when the hall is finished, the Danish warriors gather under its roof to celebrate. Grendel, a monster who lives at the bottom of a nearby mere, is provoked by the singing and celebrating of Hrothgar's followers. He appears at the hall late one night and kills thirty of the warriors in their sleep. For the next twelve years, the fear of Grendel's fury casts a shadow over the lives of the Danes. Hrothgar and his advisors can think of nothing to calm the monster's anger. Beowulf, prince of the Geats, hears about Hrothgar's troubles, gathers fourteen of the bravest Geat warriors, and sets sail from his home in southern Sweden. The Geats are greeted by the members of Hrothgar's court, and Beowulf boasts to the king of his previous successes as a warrior, particularly his success in fighting sea monsters. Hrothgar welcomes the arrival of the Geats, hoping that Beowulf will live up to his reputation. During the banquet that follows Beowulf's arrival, Unferth, a Danish thane, voices doubt about Beowulf's past accomplishments, and Beowulf, in return, accuses Unferth of killing his brothers. Before the night ends, Hrothgar promises Beowulf great treasures if he meets with success against the monster. Grendel appears on the night of the Geats' arrival at Heorot. Beowulf, true to his word, wrestles the monster barehanded. He tears off the monster's arm at the shoulder, but Grendel escapes, only to die soon afterward at the bottom of his snake-infested mere.

11. The Danish warriors, who have fled the hall in fear, return singing songs in praise of Beowulf's triumph. Hrothgar rewards Beowulf with a great store of treasures. After another banquet, the warriors of both the Geats and the Danes retire for the night. Unknown to the warriors, however, Grendel's mother is plotting revenge. She arrives at the hall when all the warriors are sleeping and carries off Aeschere, Hrothgar's chief advisor along with her son's claw. Beowulf offers to dive to the bottom of the lake, find the monster and destroy her. He and his men follow the monster's tracks to the cliff overlooking the lake where Grendel's mother lives. They see Aeschere's bloody head sitting on the cliff. While preparing for battle, Beowulf asks Hrothgar to protect his warriors, and to send his treasures to his uncle, King Hygelac, if he doesn't return safely. Before Beowulf goes into the sea, Unferth offers him his sword, Hrunting. During the ensuing battle Grendel's mother carries Beowulf to her underwater home. After a terrible fight, Beowulf kills the monster with a magical sword, probably put there by the Al-Weilder, that he finds on the wall of her home. He also finds Grendel's dead body, cuts off the head, and returns to land, where the Geat and Danish warriors are waiting expectantly. Beowulf has now abolished the race of evil monsters.

12. The warriors return to Hrothgar's court, where the Danes and Geats prepare a feast in celebration of the death of the monsters. Beowulf bids farewell to Hrothgar and tells the old king that if the Danes ever again need help he will gladly come to their assistance. Hrothgar presents Beowulf with more treasures, and they embrace, emotionally, like father and son. The Geats sail home. After recounting the story of his battles with Grendel and Grendel's mother, Beowulf tells King Hygelac about the feud between Denmark and their enemies, the Heatho-bards. He describes the proposed peace settlement, in which Hrothgar will give his daughter Freawaru to Ingeld, king of the Heatho-bards, but predicts that the peace will not last long. Hygelac rewards Beowulf for his bravery with land, swords, and houses. The meeting between Hygelac and Beowulf marks the end of the first part of the poem. In the next part, Hygelac is dead, and Beowulf has been king of the Geats for fifty years. A thief steals a jeweled cup from a sleeping dragon who avenges his loss by flying through the night burning down houses, including Beowulf's own hall and throne. Beowulf goes to the cave where the dragon lives, vowing to destroy it single-handedly. He's an old man now, and he is not as strong as he was when he fought Grendel. During the battle Beowulf breaks his sword against the dragon's side; the dragon, enraged, engulfs Beowulf in flames and wounds him in the neck.

13. All of Beowulf's followers flee except Wiglaf, who rushes through the flames to assist the aging warrior. Wiglaf stabs the dragon with his sword, and Beowulf, in a final act of courage, cuts the dragon in half with his knife. Yet the damage is done. Beowulf realizes that he's dying, that he has fought his last battle. He asks Wiglaf to bring him the dragon's storehouse of treasures; seeing the jewels and gold will make him feel that the effort has been worthwhile. He instructs Wiglaf to build a tomb to be known as "Beowulf's tower" on the edge of the sea. After Beowulf dies, Wiglaf admonishes the troops who deserted their leader when he was fighting against the dragon. He tells them that they have been untrue to the standards of bravery, courage, and loyalty that Beowulf has taught. Wiglaf sends a messenger to a nearby camp of Geat soldiers with instructions to report the outcome of the battle. Wiglaf supervises the building of the funeral pyre. In keeping with Beowulf's instructions, the dragon's treasure is buried alongside Beowulf's ashes in the tomb. The poem ends as it began -- with the funeral of a great warrior.

14. Characters

15. Beowulf is the main hero of the poem, whose exploits in warfare and against evil forces, rise to kingship, and then decline due to old age and death form the subject of the poem. In the first part of the poem, we are given the exploits of Beowulf, as he travels from Geatland to Scyld to come to the aid of the Swedish king Hrothgar, who is troubled by the monstrosities of a dragon called Grendel. Beowulf kills not only Grendel, but also his mother, and returns to the Geats richly rewarded by Hrothgar.Beowulf is the son of Ecgtheow, and was taken by Hrethel, the king of the Geats, under his protection when he was seven years old. Beowulf served Hrethel, and his two sons, Haethcyn and Hygelac and the latter's son Heardred respectively, until finally after the latter's death, he succeeds as king of Geats, and rules for fifty years, until his death at the hands of the Fire dragon.Beowulf is described in the poem as being a man of extraordinary abilities: he has the strength of thirty men, and an exceptional swimmer, both qualities that come to his help in his battles with Grendel and Grendel's mother. He is not quickly roused to temper, evidenced in his interactions with Unferth at Hrothgar's court, is intensely loyal to his king Hygelac, is genuinely committed to the welfare of his people, is virtuous and believes in Fate, as that which God has ordained for him.GrendelGrendel is the fifty-yard long monster, which has wreaked havoc in Hrothgar's kingdom for twelve years. He is one of the descendants of Cain and lives with his mother in the marshes and stalks his victims at night, when he raids the Hall of the Danes, and kills and kidnaps their warriors. He is immune to any weapons made of iron as he has cast a spell over them, and is thus killed by Beowulf in a hand-to-hand combat. Grendel loses an arm in the fight, and escapes to the marshes where he dies. Grendel is presented in the poem as literally evil incarnate roaming the world, against which Beowulf is pitted as the defender of the good.

16. Grendel's MotherAfter Grendel is killed by Beowulf, Grendel's mother returns to the Hall to take revenge. She succeeds is killing one of Hrothgar's warriors, and escapes. She is eventually sought out by Beowulf, and a fierce underwater fight ensues between herself and Beowulf, where is killed. Grendel's mother is perhaps the most interesting figure for while Grendel is pure evil incarnate, it is his mother who seems to be the guardian of the underworld, for it is only in her death that the lake and marshy land in which the monsters lived, is purged of evil. It is also interesting, that while Grendel's mother is acknowledged to be weaker because of her sex, it is her fight with Beowulf that is fiercer and forms a greater part of the poem, than the fight with Grendel.HrothgarHrothgar, married to Wealhtheow, is the king of the Danes, and it is his kingdom in which Grendel has created havoc. He accepts Beowulf's offer of help in combating the monster, and richly rewards him for the task successfully accomplished. He dies of old age, having ruled for fifty years. He genuinely cares for his people, and believes in God and virtue above brute strength, evident in his injunction to Beowulf at parting to be always mindful of God. Hrothgar presents the counterpoint as well as the other face of Beowulf, as he is both the aged king, unable to save his kingdom from ravage, and thus a contrast to the might of Beowulf, as well as the picture of what Beowulf himself will become in a few years: defeated by age.WyglafWyglaf is the son of Weohstan and a thane (warrior) of Beowulf when the latter is king. He is the only one who stays behind when Beowulf is hurt by the fire dragon, and fights alongside him to kill the dragon. He is the only one mindful of kinship ties as well as grateful for the honors that Beowulf has bestowed on him and other warriors. He serves as a reminder of an age of loyalty and bravery that is coming to an end with the death of Beowulf.

17. Themes There are several main motifs, which occur on a regular intervals throughout the poem: - Christian/ Pagan - Good and evil (Light and dark) - Men and monsters - Treasure

18. Good and evil (light and dark) Grendel's massacre of the Danes extends beyond his bloody hunger. Grendel is mankind's enemy and the physical embodiment of evil, of humanity gone wrong. He does not follow the codes of feudal society: allegiance, honour, loyalty, and community, the core values of civilization among the Danes. "Grendel's hatred began,/...the monster relished his savage war/ On the Danes, keeping the bloody feud/ Alive, seeking no peace, offering/ No truce, accepting no settlement, no price/ In gold or land, and paying the living/ For one crime only with another. No one/ Waited for reparation from his plundering claws:/ That shadow of death hunted in the darkness,/ Stalked Hrothgar's warriors." Light and darkness are closely associated throughout the poem, symbolizing the forces of good and evil, heaven and hell. Human civilization, in the form of heroic warriors, is often associated with light: the halls are illuminated with rejoicing and treasure. Grendel's lair is dark and grey, and he only hunts at night, in darkness. "They have seen my strength for themselves,/ Have watched me rise from the darkness of war,/ Dripping with my enemies' blood. I drove/ Five great giants into chains, chased/ All of that race from the earth. I swam/ In the blackness of night, hunting monsters/ Out of the ocean, and killing them one/ By one; death was my errand and the fate/ They had earned. Now Grendel and I are called/ Together, and I've come."

19. Men and monsters Who is human, who is a monster, who has superhuman abilities? Where does the line blur between monster/human? This is related to the lineage of Cain and Abel, and is not directly related to good and evil. It regards physical strength and supernatural ability/tendencies. Grendel is considered a monster: "Till the monster stirred, that demon, that fiend/Grendel who haunted the moors, the wild/Marshes, and made his home in a hell./Not hell but hell on earth. He was spawned in that slime/Of Cain, murderous creatures banished/ By God, punished forever for the crime/ Of Abel's death." Beowulf is human but also has the strength, "grip," of thirty men. He is also super-human, and is some ways, almost a monster, but in a different sense than Grendel: "They have seen my strength for themselves,/ Have watched me rise from the darkness of war,/ Dripping with my enemies' blood. I drove/ Five great giants into chains, chased/ All of that race from the earth. I swam/ In the blackness of night, hunting monsters/ Out of the ocean, and killing them one/ By one; death was my errand and the fate/ They had earned. Now Grendel and I are called/ Together, and I've come."Beowulf's strength, his primal desire for blood and violence, and his tales of killing do not seem that different to Grendel's massacres at Herot. Beowulf makes himself the equal of Grendel, and presents this parallel by declaring they are 'called together.' Beowulf's power in fighting monsters is considered supernatural, but sometimes he needs the assistance of his sword or mail (he is still human and not immortal). Monsters, including the dragon, Grendel's mother, and Grendel, can only attack and eat men in their mead-halls at night. Related to light and dark imagery, their power is derived from evil, and functions in the dark. In contrast, all heroes and warriors leave to fight the monsters in daylight, when the Lord reigns.

20. Christian/ Pagan Beowulf is an essentially pagan poem. Its composition occurred at the same time as England's conversion to Christianity. When Prince Beo is born, it is "allowed by the grace of god/...Lord of all life, Ruler/ Of glory". The poem combines direct references to the Old Testament with pagan references, quite often: "[R]ecalling/ The Almighty making of the earth, shaping/ These beautiful plains marked off by oceans,/ Then proudly setting the sun and moon/ To glow across the land and light it;/...made quick with life, with each/ Of the nations who now move on its face." The pagan concept of fate was called wyrd, and was a persistent part of later Anglo-Saxon Christian poetry, which much like Beowulf, combined the two opposing ideas. Beowulf's battle with nine sea-monsters in his youth, refer both fate, or wyrd, and the Christian name of God, as being responsible for assisting him. When he is fighting with the first sea-monster, "fate let me/ Find its heart [monster's] with my sword". Later, upon his arrival on the Finnish coast: "God's bright beacon/ Appeared in the east, the water lay still,/ And at last I could see the land, wind-swept/ Cliff-walls to the coast. Fate saves/ The living when they drive away death by themselves!"

21. Treasure In 8th century feudal society, the possession of treasure, gold, famous swords, and mail/helmets regulated loyalty, allegiance and protection. Warriors who fought for a particular Lord, such as Shild, could be guaranteed a certain amount of treasure and spoils from war, raids, and different battles, in return for their service. The Lord with the most treasure, bravery and fame would become King; the throne was then passed down to younger generations of great warriors. Thus, Beo, Shild's son, inherited the throne along with his father's wealth. The entire system was based on a Germanic heroic code of honour, which designated bravery, strength, wealth, and honour as desired values. A King was a "ring-giver," because gold often came in rings, also a symbol of loyalty or sacred vows. The mark of success in battle, strength and prowess, is shining, beautiful armour, silver mail and gold swords. The more brilliant their weapons were thought to be, passed down from their forefathers and past battles, the more honourable and noble the warriors were. It is significant that Hrothgar's queen, Welthow, pours mead for each warrior out of a jewelled cup belonging to Hrothgar's kingdom. Gold and treasure such as this are the property of Hrothgar, and the act of pouring wine from such a cup signifies the Danish warriors' and now the Geatish warriors' allegiance to Hrothgar in battle. Welthow is described as a "bracelet-wearing queen" which also relates directly to her role as a peacemaker; much like treasure, women were often married off between feuding tribes to make peace.

22. Authorship The author of Beowulf is unknown. According to the Norton Anthology of English literature, most scholars believe that the epic was written by a Christian poet, although Beowulf may be a product of the poet’s knowledge of both Christian beliefs and the ancient history of his people. Somewhat more complex view suggests that in the long history of the poem’s transmission, a pre-Christian heroic narrative has been ‘baptised’.

23. Language and verse form Beowulf is seen as encomium- a song of praise for a great king. Old English poetry such as Beowulf is very different from modern poetry. It was probably recited, for few people at the time were able to read. Instead of pairs of lines joined by rhyme, Anglo- Saxon poets typically used alliteration- a technique in which the first half of the line is linked to th second half through similarity in initial sound: Oft Scyld Scefing sceadena threatum Old English poets also used kennings- poetic ways of saying simple things. For example, a poet might call the sea the ‘swan-road’.

24. Final comments 1.It has been suggested that the model of Beowulf is in fact Virgil’s Aeneid, for there are various parallels with the Latin poet. 2.The action seldom moves in a simple, straightforward line, we are constantly shifted back and forth in time and space.