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The Nervous System

This article provides an overview of the functions and classification of the nervous system, including sensory input, integration, and motor output. It also discusses the structural and functional classification of the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as the role of neurons in transmitting signals. Additionally, it covers the phases of nerve impulses and the transmission of signals at synapses. The article concludes with an explanation of the reflex arc and different types of reflexes.

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The Nervous System

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  1. The Nervous System

  2. Functions of the Nervous System Three Functions: Sensory Input, Integration and motor output. • Sensory input — gathering information • To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body • Changes = stimuli • Integration • To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed

  3. Functions of the Nervous System • Motor output • A response to integrated stimuli • The response activates muscles or glands

  4. Functions of the Nervous System Figure 7.1

  5. Structural Classification of the Nervous System • Central nervous system (CNS) • Brain • Spinal cord • Peripheral nervous system (PNS) • Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord • Spinal nerves • Cranial nerves

  6. Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous System • Sensory (afferent) division • Nerve fibers that carry information to the central nervous system • Motor (efferent) division • Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central nervous system • Two subdivisions • Somatic nervous system = voluntary • Autonomic nervous system = involuntary

  7. Nervous Tissue: Neurons How does the signal travel through the nervous system? • Neurons = nerve cells • Cells specialized to transmit messages • Major parts of neurons • Cell body — nucleus and metabolic center of the cell • Processes — fibers that extend from the cell body

  8. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.4

  9. Nervous Tissue: Neurons • Cell body • Nucleus • Large nucleolus • Processes are outside the cell body • Dendrites — conduct impulses toward the cell body • Axons — conduct impulses away from the cell body

  10. Nervous Tissue: Neurons • Axons end in axonal terminals • Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters - chemicals • Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap • Synaptic cleft — gap between adjacent neurons • Synapse — junction between nerves

  11. Nervous Tissue: Neurons • Myelin sheath — whitish, fatty material covering axons • Schwann cells — produce myelin sheaths in jelly roll–like fashion • Nodes of Ranvier — gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

  12. Nervous Tissue: Neurons Figure 7.5

  13. FunctionalClassification of Neurons • Sensory (afferent) neurons • Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS • Cutaneous sense organs • Proprioceptors — detect stretch or tension • Motor (efferent) neurons • Carry impulses from the central nervous system to viscera, muscles, or glands

  14. Functional Classification of Neurons – Sensory or Motor Figure 7.7

  15. Neuron Classification Figure 7.6

  16. Structural Classification of Neurons • Multipolar neurons — many extensions from the cell body Figure 7.8a

  17. Structural Classification of Neurons • Bipolar neurons — one axon and one dendrite Figure 7.8b

  18. Structural Classification of Neurons • Unipolar neurons — have a short single process leaving the cell body Figure 7.8c

  19. Functional Properties of Neurons How do nerves (neurons) work? • Irritability • Ability to respond to stimuli • Conductivity • Ability to transmit an impulse

  20. Nerve Impulses – 4 phases of nerve impulse • Resting neuron • The plasma membrane at rest is polarized: + ions outside of nerve cell • Fewer positive ions are inside the cell than outside the cell • Depolarization • A stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s membrane • A depolarized membrane allows sodium (Na+) to flow inside the membrane • The exchange of ions initiates an action potential in the neuron

  21. Nerve Impulses • Action potential – impulse travels along neuron • If the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is propagated (runs) over the entire axon • Impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin sheath

  22. Nerve Impulses After a signal is sent: • Repolarization • Potassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane • The sodium-potassium pump, using ATP, restores the original configuration

  23. Transmission of a Signal at Synapses • Impulses are able to cross the synapse to another nerve • Neurotransmitter (chemical) is released from a nerve’s axon terminal • The dendrite of the next neuron has receptors that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter • An action potential is started in the dendrite

  24. The Reflex Arc • Reflex — rapid, predictable, and involuntary response to a stimulus • Occurs over pathways called reflex arcs • Reflex arc — direct route from a sensory neuron, to an interneuron, to an effector (does not go to brain)

  25. Skin Spinal cord (in cross section) Stimulus at distalend of neuron Sensory neuron Integrationcenter Receptor Motor neuron Interneuron Effector (a) The Reflex Arc Figure 7.11a

  26. Types of Reflexes and Regulation Reflexes are either Somatic or Autonomic • Somatic reflexes – uses skeletal muscles • Activation of skeletal muscles • Example: When you move your hand away from a hot stove

  27. Types of Reflexes and Regulation • Autonomic reflexes – use smooth muscles • Smooth muscle regulation • Heart and blood pressure regulation • Regulation of glands • Digestive system regulation

  28. Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain & Spinal Cord • CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube • The neural tube becomes the brain and spinal cord • The opening of the neural tube becomes the ventricles • Four chambers (regions) within the brain • Filled with cerebrospinal fluid

  29. Four Regions of the Brain • Cerebral hemispheres (cerebrum) • Diencephalon • Brain stem • Cerebellum

  30. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.12b

  31. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum • Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum) • Paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain • Includes more than half of the brain mass • The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)

  32. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum • Lobes of the cerebrum • Fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum into four lobes • Surface lobes of the cerebrum • Frontal lobe • Parietal lobe • Occipital lobe • Temporal lobe

  33. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13b

  34. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum • Specialized areas of the cerebrum • Primary somatic sensory (skeletal muscles) area • Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors • Located in parietal lobe • Primary motor area • Sends impulses to skeletal muscles • Located in frontal lobe • Broca’s area • Involved in our ability to speak

  35. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum • Cerebral areas involved in special senses • Gustatory area (taste) • Visual area • Auditory area • Olfactory area

  36. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum • Interpretation areas of the cerebrum • Speech/language region • Language comprehension region • General interpretation area

  37. Regions of the Brain: Cerebrum Figure 7.13c

  38. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon • Sits on top of the brain stem • Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres • Made of three parts • Thalamus • Hypothalamus • Epithalamus

  39. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon Figure 7.12b

  40. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon • Thalamus • The relay station for sensory impulses • Transfers impulses to the correct part of the cerebrum cortex for localization and interpretation • IE: Smell signal comes up from the nose  Thalamus  cerebrum for interpreation

  41. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon • Hypothalamus • Under the thalamus • Important autonomic nervous system center • Helps regulate body temperature • Controls water balance • Regulates metabolism • An important part of the limbic system (emotions) • The pituitary gland is attached to the hypothalamus

  42. Regions of the Brain: Diencephalon • Epithalamus • Houses the pineal gland/body (an endocrine gland), release of hormones • Maintains body chemistries ie: sugar levels in pancreas. • Secretes melatonin – sleep hormone

  43. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem • Attaches to the spinal cord • Parts of the brain stem • Midbrain • Pons • Medulla oblongata

  44. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem • Midbrain • Mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers • Reflex centers for vision and hearing • IE: focusing of eyes

  45. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem • Pons • The bulging center part of the brain stem • Mostly composed of fiber tracts • Control of breathing

  46. Regions of the Brain: Brain Stem • Medulla Oblongata • The lowest part of the brain stem • Merges into the spinal cord • Includes important fiber tracts • Contains important control centers • Heart rate control • Blood pressure regulation • Breathing • Swallowing • Vomiting

  47. Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum • Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces • Provides involuntary coordination of body movements

  48. Regions of the Brain: Cerebellum Figure 7.16a

  49. Protection of the Central Nervous System • Scalp and skin • Skull and vertebral column - bone • Meninges • Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) • Blood-brain barrier

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