The Fading Dream of Racial Integration:

1. The Fading Dream of Racial Integration: White Backlash & Black Nationalism

2. Ch.22: The Struggle Continues • Pres. Johnson became less focused on the Civil Rights Movement and its goals and more on the Vietnam War. • Elections reflected the rise of white opposition, as more conservative Republicans took seats in Congress. • White opposition was met with push back by a new generation of black activists, disillusioned by King’s message of peaceful protests: • Floyd McKissick of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) • Stokely Carmichael of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) • Black churchmen also attacked the white power structure of the National Council of Churches. • These young African Americans and diverse black religious leaders became the catalyst for the radical shift in the Civil Rights Movement.

3. Malcolm X • - Regarded as one of the most influential activists of his time. • - His childhood was very difficult, and turned him to a life of crime. • - While in jail, he converted to Islam and changed his name from Malcolm Little to “X”. • - Upon release, he became a minister at Harlem’s Temple Number 7 and was immediately influential. • - Rejected King’s ideals of nonviolence and integration. • - “Revolutions are based on bloodshed” • - Eventually broke from the National of Islam due to disagreements with Elijah Muhammad, and began the Muslim Mosque Inc. • - His pilgrimage to Mecca led to his name change to El-Hajj Malik El-Shabazz and the foundation of the Organization for Afro-American Unity. • - He was assassinated by an associate of the Nation of Islam on Feb. 14th, 1965.

4. Stokely Carmichael & Black Power • - Became chairman of SNCC in 1966 and moved the group towards Black Nationalism. • - Dismissed the white staffers. • - Popularized the slogan “Black Power” when he and the SNCC were finishing James Meredith’s march from TN to MI. • - Black Power was viewed by critics as reverse racism. • - Carmichael argued that it was promoting a positive self-identity, racial pride, and developing black nationalism. • - White aid in the struggle came under scrutiny due to the slow pace the movement was taking. CORE also removed white members in 1968. Unfortunately, this became one of the several reasons both the SNCC and CORE fell apart by the close of the 60’s.

5. How did MLK view the Black Power movement? • Welcomed promotion of black political and economic strength, psychological assertiveness, and cultural pride. • Did not like the counter racism – “Black’s can’t win” • Disagreed with the idea of black separatism

6. The National Council of Churches • Black and white leaders of mainstream religious organizations worked together initially from the 1950’s until the late 60’s, pushing an agenda of non-segregated churches and society. • The NCC in particular gave both financial and moral backing to the civil rights movement, as well as establishing the Commission on Religion and Race to support the black freedom movement. • When Benjamin Payton was appointed the director of the Commission on Race and Religion, he shifted the focus towards black power ideology, focusing on the economic development of the black people and their communities. • The National Commission of Black Churchmen (NCBC) came out of this movement and erupted as more and more black clergymen pushed white church organizations for more black leadership. • James Forman’s Black Manifesto caused controversy in the religious councils when he demanded white churches pay $500 million in reparations and his critique caused deterioration in the white council relations with blacks.

7. Reparations: A Debate • For tonight’s homework, you are going to prepare points for a debate. • You will be given a side to argue in class: • For reparations to African Americans • Against reparations to African Americans • Do you believe that African American’s deserve economic reimbursements for the setbacks created by hundreds of years of slavery, discrimination and racism? • You must argue for or against this topic in a team debate tomorrow!

8. The Black Panther Party • Most institutionalized expression of the new black militancy. • Created by Huey P. Newton & Bobby Seale in Oakland, CA in 1966. • Combined black nationalist ideology with Marxist-Leninist doctrines • Ideology: Overthrow capitalist society, end police brutality, and liberate • the black people.

9. Police Repression & FBI’s COINTELPRO • “Power to the People”: Black Panthers worked with the community to provide food and health care, as well as drug education. • J. Edgar Hoover used the FBI to infiltrate the Panthers and incite violence to destroy their public opinion. Although Newton and others were charged for several crimes, the FBI did more damage to their reputation covertly. • Law enforcement killed 28 Panthers and arrested 750. The most egregious incident involved a raid on the Illinois Panther HQ where police killed Fred Hampton and Mark Clay in their sleep. Firing hundreds of shots before being fired upon.

10. Prisoner’s Rights • Panther’s also lobbied for prisoner’s rights, especially since blacks made up 70% of the prison population in the 1970’s. • They argued that blacks suffered from unfair sentencing due to political reasons and racist conditions in prison. • Angela Davis was a major figure in fighting for prisoner’s rights, but earned her way on the FBI’s top 10 most wanted list due to her involvement with the Soledad Brothers. After a court house raid by one of the brothers of the prisoners that failed, she became a fugitive due to her supposed involvement in supplying guns to the effort. • After George Jackson’s death at San Quentin, Attica (A NY prison) erupted into full scale rebellion which led to a bloody suppression. 1,200 prisoners took hostages and it took 4 days to put it down.

11. Inner-City Rebellions • - Stats: 29% of blacks lived below the poverty line (7.8% whites) • 50% of non-white families lived in substandard housing (18% whites) • *Percentage of poor black people rose from 27.5% to 31% between 1959 and 1965 even though the number of poor Americans dropped by almost 6 million. • *Black unemployment rate was 8.5%, twice the amount as whites. • *Black teens faced a 23% unemployment rate. (10.8% rate among white teens) • Inner-cities became impoverished as jobs moved to suburbs and other areas outside of their reach. • Panther’s compare inner-cities to colonized areas due to increase in crime and drugs, rises in dropout rates, and the weakening of family structures.

12. Riots in Urban Centers • WATTS, LA • 98% Black faced inadequacies in facilities and aid along with police brutality. • Began after a police officer arrested a black man for a DUI. • 6 days of rioting destroyed the city and ended with 34 died, 900 injured, and 4,000 arrested. • Newark, NJ • 400,000 inhabitants, a majority black. • Faced inadequate tax base and white political control. • Highest unemployment rate for black men in the entire country. • After black cab driver was beaten by police, blacks rioted for 4 days leading to the death of 25 black people, including 2 children. • Detroit, MI • Deadliest of the 59 rebellions of 1967, killing 43 blacks. • Ended with Johnson ordering 4,700 troops from the Airborne.

13. The Kerner Commission • Headed by Illinois Gov. Otto Kerner and commission included 2 black members. • White racism is the underlying cause of riots. • “moving towards two societies, one black and one white—separate but equal” • Called for massive gov’t aid to inner-cities: 2 million jobs, public housing fund, etc. • None of their major proposals were enacted.

14. Difficulties in Creating the “Great Society” • President Johnson’s “Great Society” plan was an ambitious social reform which was geared around healthcare, education, and the economic disparity between the rich and the poor. • The Medicare program and federal aid to public schools was a success, but his “War on Poverty” was seen as controversial. • The Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 • Creates an Office on Economic Opportunity that administers several programs: • Head Start and Upward Bound (education) • Volunteers in Service to America (VISTA) – domestic peace corps • Community Action Programs (CAPs) and the Education Act target the low-income population to aid them in education and other social reforms. • Opposition was formed against these programs since both fear of losing political power and white racism pushed back on federal government agenda. • Most federal money went to the Vietnam War ($140 billion) and the SS program ($44.3 billion) while only a minor percent ($10 billion) went to these programs.

15. Johnson & Vietnam • Black Americans and the Vietnam War • Blacks made up 10% of armed forces by the mid-1960’s • Due to draft deferments, many white college/graduate students were exempt, which led to a drastic increase in minorities being drafted. • Blacks entered the military for many reasons; patriotism, educational/vocational opportunities, and Project 100,000. • Project 100,000 • U.S. Defense Dept. launches project to enroll more troops by allowing those with criminal records or lack of skills to join. • 340,000 new recruits (136,000 black) • “white man’s war, but a black man’s fight” • Saw more combat duty then regular recruits.

16. Johnson Destroys the “Great Society” • Johnson’s role in the Vietnam War destroyed his credibility since many felt he had escalated a war not worth fighting. • His frustration with the Vietnam War and failure with the “War on Poverty” ended with him not running for reelection.

17. King: Searching for New Strategies • King was attacked on each side; whites viewed him as a dangerous radical and black militants viewed his as being ineffectual. • His civil rights work in Chicago was a dismal failure, but led to two important lessons; • 1) Racial discrimination is more than a southern problem • 2) Racial discrimination was linked to the economic structure. • This led him to the “Poor People’s Campaign” • Eradicate poverty / End systematic economic inequality • King became an outspoken critic against both Johnson and the Vietnam War, which alienated him from both the president and many black supporters. • King was assassinated on April 4th, 1968 by James Earl Ray while in Memphis, TN.