The Information-Processing Approach: Attention, Memory, and Learning

1. CHAPTER 8 The Information-Processing Approach

2. Learning Goals • Describe the information-processing approach. • Characterize attention and summarize how it changes during development. • Discuss memory in terms of encoding, storage, and retrieval. • Draw some lessons about learning from the way experts think. • Explain the concept of metacognition and identify some ways to improve children’s metacognition.

3. The Information-Processing Approach The Nature of the Information-Processing Approach Information, Memory, and Thinking Mechanisms of Change Cognitive Resources: Capacity and Speed of Processing Information

4. Information-processing approach… • Emphasizes that children manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it. • Is analogous to computers.

5. Developmental Changes - Increases in capacity and speed of information processing Contributions of biology and experience Brain Structure Neural: synaptic pruning and myelination Cognitive Resources

6. Change Mechanisms • Encoding: getting information into memory • Automaticity: processing information with little effort • Strategy construction:discovering new processing procedures • Self-modification: represented by metacognition, “knowing about knowing”

7. The Information-Processing Approach Attention Developmental Changes What Is Attention?

8. What Is Attention? Attentionis the focusing of mental processes • Selective attention • Divided attention • Sustained attention

9. Developmental Changes in Attention • Increase in selective attention • Increase in attention span • Increase in cognitive control of attention; less impulsivity • Increase in attention to relevant stimuli

10. Getting Students to Pay Attention Encourage attention and minimize distraction Make learninginteresting Use cues and gestures for important material Focus on active learning and be aware of individual differences Use media and technology to make learning enjoyable

11. The Information-Processing Approach Memory What Is Memory? Retrieval and Forgetting Encoding Storage

12. Enter the Debate Should teachers require students to engage in rote memorization? YES NO

13. Memory …is the retention of information over time. STORAGE RETRIEVAL ENCODING Gettinginformationinto memory Retaininginformationover time Takinginformationout of storage

14. Encoding Strategies REHEARSAL Consistent repetition of information over time DEEP PROCESSING Deeper processing, better memory ATTENTION Concentrate and focus ORGANIZATION Aided by chunking CONSTRUCTING IMAGES ELABORATION Adds to distinctiveness

15. Memory’s Time Frames Sensory Memory – Retains information for an instant Short-Term Memory – Limited capacity; retains for 30 seconds without rehearsal Long-Term Memory – Unlimited capacity over a long period of time

16. Developmental Changes in Memory

17. Baddeley’s Model of Memory

18. Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Theory

19. Long-Term Memory ProceduralMemory DeclarativeMemory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Memory

20. Representing Information in Memory Network Theories Schema Theories • Nodes stand for labels and concepts • Network is irregular and distorted • Long-term searches are not exact • Retrieved information is fit into an existing formation (schema) • Schemas: Concepts, knowledge, or information about events that already exist in the mind and influence the way we encode information.

21. Retrieval Serial Position Recall better at the beginning and end of list Encoding Specificity Associations form cues Recall Previously learned information, as in fill-in-the-blank Recognition Identify learned information, as in multiple choice

22. Forgetting

23. Improving Memory • Promote understanding • Assist organization of knowledge • Teach mnemonics • Method of loci • Rhymes • Acronyms • Keyword

24. Information Processing TheoryTheory into Practice Ms. Blackwood has assigned her students 20 spelling words to learn for the week. She notices that most of her students have no problems remembering how to spell the first few and the last few words, but many struggle with those in the middle of the list. Q:Why might students have an easier time remembering how to spell the first and last few words, but struggle with those in the middle of the list? Explain.

25. The Information-Processing Approach Expertise Expertise and Teaching Expertise and Learning Acquiring Expertise

26. Experts • Detect features and meaningful patterns of information • Accumulate more content knowledge; organize around important ideas and concepts • Retrieve important aspects of knowledge with little effort • Adapt an approach to new situations • Use effective learning strategies

27. The Information-Processing Approach Metacognition Strategies and Metacognitive Regulation Developmental Changes The Good Information- Processing Model

28. Metacognition “Knowing about knowing” Metacognitive Knowledge Monitoring and reflecting on one’s current or recent thoughts Metacognitive Activity Students consciously adapt and manage their thinking strategies during problem solving and purposeful thinking

29. Improving Metacognitive Skills Improvement of metacognitive skills results from: • Developmental changes as student matures cognitively in metamemory and theories of mind. • The Good Information-Processing model that includes specific learning strategies, knowing the similarities and differences in multiple strategies, and the benefits of using them. • Monitoring the effectiveness of strategies and modifying when necessary.

30. Crack the CaseThe Test • What are the issues in this case? • With what type of learning is George having difficulty? • What type of learning is easier for George? • Design a study skills program for George drawing on principles of the cognitive information-processing approach.

31. Reflection & Observation Reflection: • What strategies have teachers used to help you understand difficult concepts? • Why were these strategies helpful?