Restoration Ecology and the Conservation of Biodiversity

1. Restoration Ecology and the Conservation of Biodiversity Basic principles of ecology have practical use for solutions to human problems NRES 420 Restoration Ecology

2. Objectives • Human transformation of landscape created need • Illinois – a state in great need • Restoration ecology & conservation biology • Blending science into practice • Important ecological principles for restoration • Practice of restoration

3. 1870’s Advent of clay drainage tile systems Decreased rail transportation costs Legislation to create drainage districts 1923 First commercial hybrid maize 1869 Transcontinental railroad 1970s Environmental protection legislation 1850 Swamp & Overflowed Lands Act 1956 Interstate Highway System 1920 1800 1840 1880 1960 2000 1903 First flight 1836 Steel plow invented 1893 First gasoline automobile Landscape Transformation 1999 Executive Order 13112 (invasive species) 1862 Homestead Act

4. Start of Agriculture Prairie Drainage Diversified Farming Early Settlement Monoculture 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 Hectares (millions) in Illinois Elk Bison Black Bear Mountain Lion 8.0 Dry Prairie Wet Prairie / Marsh Gray Wolf Fisher Forests 6.4 Deer Pasture Beaver 4.8 Bobcat Otter 3.2 Coyote 1.6 Year 0 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 CHANGES IN MAJOR LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS IN ILLINOIS SINCE 1800 AND IMPACTS ON SELECTED MAMMALS

5. Habitat Lss FOREST PARCELS BY AREA CATEGORY NUMBER OF HIGH QUALITY PRAIRIES REMAINING IN ILLINOIS CLASSIFIED BY SIZE CATEGORY >240 40-240 20-40 4-20 0.4-4 <0.4 100 1,000 100,000 10,000 1,000,000 120 Number of Parcels Area Category (ha) Number of Sites 80 40 Prairie Size (ha) 0 >40 0-0.5 0.5-2 2-4 4-8 8-20 20-40 Fragmentation

6. Non-Natives in the Illinois Flora* 30 % of Illinois Flora 20 10 1950 1986 2004 1846 0 *2004: 961 non-native of 3,074 taxa 97 of 173 families (56%) lack non-native taxa Invasive Species Spread of Alliaria petiolata

7. Illinois in Need • Clearly a need – • Remaining habitat: • 0.01% prairie • 9.9% wetland • 31.4% forest • U.S. Rank: • Indiana 48 • Illinois 49 • Iowa 50

8. Restoration Ecology Using research to better understand ecological processes within highly disturbed ecosystems in order to enhance their complexity and long-term persistence

9. POPULATION ECOLOGY COMMUNITY ECOLOGY RESTORATION ECOLOGY ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY

10. Improving the Ecology of a Disturbed Area by: – increase diversity in highly disturbed system – reintroduce ecosystem function – reestablish characteristic species and community structure/function – may have to start restoration from scratch van Diggelen, Grootjans & Harris (2001)

11. Ecosystem What are the goals of function restoration? Ecosystem structure A. D. Bradshaw, “Reclamation of Land and Ecology of Ecosystems”

12. Restoration Ecology Applying ecological principles within a social context to revitalize habitats and conserve species

13. POLICY POPULATION ECOLOGY COMMUNITY ECOLOGY ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION SOCIETY ECONOMICS ECOSYSTEM ECOLOGY LANDSCAPE ECOLOGY POLITICS

14. Ecology Theory Relevant to Restoration • Population Ecology • Vulnerability of small populations • Genetic depression, swamping • Metapopulation theory + MVP size • Community Ecology • Species-area relationships • Island biogeography theory • Problems with fragmented habitats • Intermediate disturbance hypothesis • Succession & community assembly • Diversity-stability theory; community structure • Landscape Ecology • Ecosystem Ecology

15. What aspects of Population Ecology are relevant to Restoration Ecology? Species survival depends on maintaining minimum viable population levels (>500). maintaining genetic diversity. using locally adapted genotypes. having a metapopulation structure with strong source subpopulations to rescue sink ones.

16. S = c Az log S = log c + z log A COMMUNITY ECOLOGY: How is the Species-Area curve relevant? S = c + z log A Figure 1

17. Immigration Extinction Rate (species per year) Small Large Number of Species Near Far How is Island Biogeography Theoryrelevant? Figure 2

18. Patch relationships: What is take-home message? Figure 3 (From Forman, 1995)

19. Ecological Disturbance: What are its dimensions? How relate to restoration? 1 2 3 Figure 4 (D.T. Krohne, ‘General Ecology’)

20. Number of Species Competitive exclusion Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis:at which level does disturbance aidrestoration? Small species pool Disturbance Rate Figure 5

21. Natural Events** Fire Disease epidemic Flood Herbivory Drought Hurricane, tornado, windstorm Avalanche, landslide Volcanic eruption Ice storm Anthropogenic Events** Residential development Road, trail, railroad line Telephone line, electrical power line Dam, water diversion, canal Commercial development Modern agriculture Mining Logging Grazing Selected Natural & Anthropogenic Disturbances: reversible vs. permanent change? ** Entries in italics connote reversible disturbances; others represent long-term or permanent conversion of habitat.

22. Succession • an orderly change in relative abundances of dominant species in a community following a disturbance until a stable community (‘climax’- like predisturbance) results • 1° succession begins on mineral soils • 2° succession begins on soils with seeds

23. Succession: Species-Species Interactions How do these interactions influence community development? • Facilitation – early species make environment less suitable for themselves, but more suitable for later species -- nurse crops - Tolerance - early species make environment less suitable for recruitment of similar early species, but they neither help nor hinder later species - Inhibition - early species make environment inhospitable to later-arriving species Early prairie reconstructions overly dominated by warm season grasses

24. Community Assembly • development of the ecological community • is determined by random variation in species' colonization of a disturbed area & subsequent species interactions

25. Which orientation to follow?Succession vs. Community Assembly • Succession • Deterministic • Internal interactions & environment determine outcome • Assembly • Stochastic • Supply of propagules determines outcome • Multiple stable assemblies

26. How can succession be managed to aid restoration?

27. Managing Succession Controlled Colonization Controlled Species Performance Restoration: Managing Succession Designed Disturbance

28. Managing Succession: in Practice

29. How can community structure influence stability of restored community? • Top-down control of trophic abundances • Cascade effects: indirect effects extended through multiple levels • Can have chain of extinctions if highly dependent • Keystone organisms must be preserved • Non-redundant species, key species that maintain stability/diversity

30. How can Diversity Complexity Stability be enhanced? • An increase in the structural diversity of vegetation increases species diversity. • Full restoration of native plant communities sustains diverse wildlife populations. • A high diversity of plant species assures a year-round food supply for the greatest diversity of wildlife

31. How does the landscape context of the restoration influence everything discussed earlier? LandscapeEcology

32. Spatial Principles • Large areas sustain more species than small areas. • Many small patches in an area will help sustain regional diversity. • Patch shape is as important as size. • Fragmentation of habitats, communities, and ecosystems reduces diversity. • Isolated patches sustain fewer species than closely associated patches. • Species diversity in patches connected by corridors > than for disconnected patches. • A heterogeneous mosaic of community types sustains more species & is more likely to support rare species than a single homogeneous community. • Ecotones between natural communities support a variety of species from both communities & species specific to the ecotone.

33. Largest patch size • Patch longevity • Disturbance frequency • Habitat requirements Minimum Dynamic Area in Restoration Design

34. Ecosystem Ecology: how is it relevant? Interactions between the biotic & abiotic components of the ecosystem