Biotechnology- The field of Genetics & heredity

1. Biotechnology- The field of Genetics & heredity Past, Present and Future of this constantly changing field

2. The basics • Definition: The use of biology to make useful things and solve problems. • Biotechnology mixes biological information with computer technology to advance research in other areas. • Mainly used in medical, ecological and agricultural fields.

3. Principles of Genetics • Organisms acquire their form and function & behavior through heredity from ancestors. Heredity establishes continuation of life forms. • “Apple doesn’t fall far from the tree.” Offspring show traits of both parents and even some of the “grandparent” generation are visible. • Genes are what get actually passed on from the parents. Half from each parent.

4. Chromosomes All living forms use DNA and RNA as method of transmission for traits. Genes are located on chromosomes, which are tight coils of DNA. The use of DNA/RNA is one of the most important unifying concepts in biology.

5. Early theories of Inheritance • Aristotle proposed the theory of pangenesis which held that particles (called pangenesis) from all parts of the body come together to form the eggs and sperm. • Changes that occurred in the various body parts during an organism's life could be passed on to the next generation. • Pangenesis was accepted by many (Lamarck and Darwin) and was the prevailing theory into the nineteenth century. • In the seventeenth century, Anton van Leeuwenhoek "observed " the homunculus, a miniature human being, in human sperm cells. He and his followers (spermists) believed that: • The mother serves only as an incubator for the homunculus. • All characteristics are inherited from the father. • Also during the seventeenth century, Regnier deGraaf and his followers (ovists) proposed that: • The egg contains an entire human in miniature and that semen only stimulates its growth. • All characteristics are thus inherited from the mother. deGraaf was the first person to describe the ovarian follicle in which human egg cells are produced.

6. Gregor Mendel: Father of Modern genetics • 1822-1884 , mathematician Augustinian Monk from what is now the Czech republic • Mendel worked with his plants until he obtained true-breeding plants. • Parental plants of such a cross are called the P generation. • The hybrid offspring of the P generation are the F1 generation (first filial). • Mendel also allowed F1 generation plants to self-pollinate to produce the next generation, the F2 generation. • Observed seven easily identifiable traits that he tracked and used to develop his theory of heredity.

8. Based upon their observations with ornamental plant breeding, scientists in the nineteenth century realized that both parents contribute to the characteristics of offspring. The "blending" theory then became the favored explanation of inheritance. According to this theory: • Hereditary materials from male and female parents mix to form the offspring, and once blended, the hereditary material is inseparable. • This theory was inconsistent with the observations that: • Populations do not reach a uniform appearance. • Some traits are absent in one generation and present in the next. • Modern genetics began in the 1860's with the experiments of an Augustinian monk named Gregor Mendel who discovered the fundamental principles of inheritance.

9. Brother Johann gregor Mendel Father of Modern Genetics

10. Mendel’s First law of Inheritance • The Law of Segregation: • There are alternative forms of a gene called alleles • For each inherited characteristic, an organism has two alleles, one inherited from each parent. • A sperm or egg carries only one allele for each inherited characteristic, because allele pairs separate (segregate) from each other during the production of gametes. • When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is fully expressed and the other is completely masked. These are called the dominant allele and recessive allele, respectively

11. Second Law of Inheritance • The Law of Independent Assortment: • when forming gametes, paired factors that specify alternative phenotypes segregate independently of one another. • This means that during the formation of offspring, you have a game of chance.

12. Chromosomal Aberrations • Structural and numerical deviations that affect many genes at once are aberrations also called mutations. (An actual mutation is a change in the gene that results in alteration of bases within the DNA sequence) • Once mutated, a gene will faithfully reproduce itself as is. • Helpful or Not Helpful • Good- bring new possibilities for natural selection to work • Bad- may produce a lethal combination • Changes in number are also called euploidy- when there’s addition or deletion of whole sets of chromosomes

13. Aneuploidy is when a single chromosome is added or subtracted from a diploid set. • Polyploidy is most common • Nondisjunction occurs during meiosis when a pair of chromosomes fail to separate and result in a monosomic animal. Survival is rare because of the uneven balance of directions.

14. T.H. Morgan • After teaching for 13 years at Bryn Mawr College, he moved on to Columbia University where he established the famous "fly room." • Morgan chose to work with the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster. This fly requires little space, breeds quickly, has many observable characteristics, and has only four chromosomes, making it an ideal model organism for genetics studies • By examining thousands and thousands of flies with a microscope and a magnifying glass, Morgan and his colleagues confirmed the chromosomal theory of inheritance: that genes are located on chromosomes like beads on a string, and that some genes are linked

15. genes • By examining thousands and thousands of flies with a microscope and a magnifying glass, Morgan and his colleagues confirmed the chromosomal theory of inheritance: that genes are located on chromosomes like beads on a string, and that some genes are linked

16. Sex linked traits White eyed male

17. Nearing retirement from Columbia… • Morgan then went to California to establish the Biology program at Caltech- this is where we found Linus Pauling among other prominent American geneticists. • Est. Marine Lab

18. Just for laUGHS…

19. Timeline of DNA technology 1953 to present

20. 1953- James Watson & Francis Crick, along with Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin discover the structure of DNA. Watson and Crick publish their findings • 1957- Francis Crick and George Gamov explained how DNA functions to make proteins • 1966- Marshall Nirenburg and Severo Ochoa figured out the 20 codons that code for out amino acids • Restriction enzymes- bacterial proteins that are biological scissors. Look for specific sequences and cut there-

21. 1969- Harvard Medical School team isolated the first gene • 1971- Smith and Wilcox discovered the HindII restriction enzyme • Gel electrophoresis is the process that sorts DNA fragments by using electrical currents to leave us with a DNA fingerprint. • 1972- Paul Berg cut sections of viral and bacterial DNA with the same restriction enzyme, spliced viral DNA to the bacterial DNA • 1973- Cohen and Boyer produced first recombinant DNA organism- this was the beginning of GENETIC ENGINEERING

22. Genetic Engineering: Altering someone's DNA by cutting a piece out and inserting another piece. • http://www.cshl.edu/about/index.html • -also in 1973 a team at Cold Spring Harbor Lab refined DNA electrophoresis by using a stain and gel. Same as we use today • Vector- DNA that can replicate within a cell and can carry foreign DNA (usually bacteria or yeast) • i.e. E. coli bacteria

23. Gel Electrophoresis

24. 1974- Scientists called for a worldwide moratorium on certain classes of experiments, the next year the recombinant DNA techniques were places on moratorium • 1977- First practical application of genetic engineering- human growth hormone produced by bacterial cells

27. 1978- Genetech, Inc. produced human insulin in E. coli • 1979- Genetech, Inc. produced human GH & 2 kinds of interferon DNA from malignant cells transformed a strain of cultured mouse cells- new tool for analyzing cancer genes ALSO the Federal regulations are relaxed • 1983- Genetech, Inc. :Kary Mullis, Biochemist conceives of the so called PCR that will enable scientists to rapidly reproduce tiny snipits of DNA

28. Polymerase chain Reaction

29. Copying DNA- cells do it, can we? • PCR (polymerase chain reaction) works like a xerox machine • We use this to produce many copies of a fragment of DNA • Very common now, uses test tubes not cells • Gene cloning occurs in cells, we could make billions of copies of DNA in just a few hours… • What potential do you see for this?

30. PCR Process • Start with your template and add polymerase (enzyme) • Heat to break up the DNA strand (like a zipper) • Free floating nucleotides and primer must also be there • Primer- artificial piece of DNA that acts as a stop and start point (20 or so pieces long) that binds to the DNA and “marks” where the template polymerase will start and stop copying.

31. 1984- Alec Jeffreys developed “genetic fingerprinting” which uses unique sequences of DNA to identify individuals • 1985- Supreme Court rules that plants can be patented- why was this important? • 1985- First use of fingerprinting in criminal investigation • 1986- First field trials of DNA recombinant plants that are resistant to bugs and viruses/bacteria • Also, FDA approves the first genetically engineered vaccine for humans, for Hep B

32. ALSo in 1986… • James Watson helped launch the Human Genome Project (it was completed in 2003, 3 years ahead of schedule) This was mainly due to the technology explosion that occurred in the 90s. • Our genome only has 30,000 to 40,000 protein coding genes • We also discovered that there was a lot more junk than originally thought. • 50% of our DNA is JUNK and 98% doesn’t code for proteins • There are very random patterns between the genes • Controversy: Originally was how much to map? Who gets the information? Insurance, doctors, etc. Who will pay for the information?

33. 1990- First successful gene therapy performed on two girls with severe immunodeficiency (bubble boy syndrome) • Mary-Claire King finds evidence that a gene on chromosome 17 causes the inherited form of breast cancer and increases the risk of ovarian cancer • 1992- U.S. Army begins collecting blood and tissue samples from all new recruits as a part of a “genetic dog tag” program aimed at better identification of soldiers killed in action • 1993- Flavr Savr tomatoes sold to public

34. To clone or not to clone, that is the final question. • George Washington University: Researchers clone human embryos and nurture them for several days. This provokes protests from ethicists, politicians and critics of genetic engineering. • 1994- Bovine GH is introduced to dairy cattle • 1995- O.J. Simpson found not guilty in high profile murder case in which PCR and DNA fingerprinting play a prominent but unpersuasive role. It did bring the technology into the spotlight. • 1997- Ian Wilmut leads a team that successfully clones a sheep, Dolly- who lived to reproduce.

36. 1998- University of Hawaii scientists use variations of Wilmut’s technique to clone 3 generations of clones • DNA analysis of semen stains of Monica’s dress match Bill’s blood sample, oops. • DNA testing proves that Thomas Jefferson fathered at least one child with his slaves (Sally Hemings) The book, Wolf by the Ears, tells the story from that childs perspective. • Two research teams succeed in growing embryonic stem cells.

37. Stem cell

38. The next century of genetics • 2000- the rough draft of the human genome is complete, while the complete genome for a pig is finished • Also- “Golden Rice," modified to make vitamin A, promises to help third-world countries alleviate blindness • 2002- Biotech crops grown on 145 million acres in 16 countries. 27% of the global acreage was grown in nine developing countries. • Also, Researchers announce successful results for a vaccine against cervical cancer • 2003- Dolly is put down after developing a progressive lung disease

39. 2004- California voters pass Prop 71, which supported embryonic stem cell research with $3 billion in funding over 10 years. • 2005- The British research firm PG Economics Ltd. finds that the global use of biotech crops has added $27 billion to farm income, and greatly reduced agriculture's negative impacts on the environment. • 2006- The National Institutes of Health begins a 10-year, 10,000-patient study using a genetic test that predicts breast-cancer recurrence and patients whose cancer is deemed unlikely to recur will be spared chemotherapy. The genetic test, Oncotype DXTM was developed by the biotech company Genomic Health and is already commercially available.

40. Moo, baa, oink! • What does all this mean to YOU?

41. What now…

42. Explain this picture