Chapter 10 Measurement and Attitude Scaling

1. Chapter 10Measurement and Attitude Scaling

2. LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, you should be able to • Explain what needs to be measured to address a research question or hypothesis • Define operationalization • Distinguish levels of scale measurement • Explain the need for index or composite measures • List the three criteria for good measurement • Explain the significance of scale reliability and validity • Describe how marketing researchers think of attitudes

3. LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d) After studying this chapter, you should be able to • Identify basic approaches to measuring attitudes • Discuss the use of rating scales for measuring attitudes • Represent a latent construct by constructing a summated scale • Summarize ways to measure attitudes with ranking and sorting techniques

4. What Do I Measure • Measurement • The process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest, usually by assigning numbers in a reliable and valid way. • Concept • A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes • Operational Definition • Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under investigation

5. EXHIBIT 10.1Are There Any Validity Issues with this Measurement?

6. Operational Definitions • Operationalization • The process of identifying scales that correspond to variance in a concept to be involved in a research process. • Scales • A device providing a range of values that correspond to different values in a concept being measured. • Correspondence rules • Indicate the way that a certain value on a scale corresponds to some true value of a concept.

7. Operational Definitions (cont’d) • Variable • Anything that varies or changes from one instance to another; can exhibit differences in value, usually in magnitude or strength, or in direction. • Constructs • Concepts measured with multiple variables.

8. EXHIBIT 10.2Media Skepticism: An Operational Definition

9. Levels of Scale Measurement • Scale • A series of items arranged along a continuous spectrum of values for the purpose of quantification. • Properties: uniquely classify, preserve order, set equal intervals, and have a natural zero. • Types of Scales • Nominal: classifies/identifies by a quality of the object • Ordinal: classifies using a ranking order of objects • Interval: quantifies objects in order on a continuum • Ratio: classifies by comparison to a standard • Categorical: classifies by a specific characteristic

10. EXHIBIT 10.3Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales Provide Different Information

11. EXHIBIT 10.4Facts About the Four Levels of Scales

12. EXHIBIT 10.4Facts About the Four Levels of Scales (cont’d)

13. Index Measures • Attributes • Single characteristics or fundamental features that pertain to an object, person, or issue. • Index Measures • Assign a value based on how much of the concept being measured is associated with an observation. • Indexes often are formed by putting several variables together. • Composite Measures • Assign a value to an observation based on a mathematical derivation of multiple variables.

14. Three Criteria for Good Measurement Reliability Validity Good Measurement Sensitivity

15. Reliability versus Validity • Reliability • The degree to which measures are free from random error and therefore yield consistent results. • An indicator of a measure’s internal consistency. • Validity • The accuracy of a measure or the extent to which a score truthfully represents a concept. • Does a scale to measure what was intended to be measured?

16. EXHIBIT 10.5Reliability and Validity on Target

17. Measurement Accuracy: Sensitivity • Sensitivity • A measurement instrument’s ability to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses. • Composite measures allow for a greater range of possible scores, they are more sensitive than single-item scales. • Sensitivity is generally increased by adding more response points or adding scale items.

18. Attitudes in Marketing Research • Attitude • An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given to various aspects of the world. • Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs • “Hypothetical construct” describes a latent or unobservable variable that is measurable only by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behavior—attitudes are considered to be such variables.

19. Components of an Attitude Affective Cognitive Attitude Behavioral

20. Components of an Attitude • Affective Component • The feelings or emotions toward an object • Cognitive Component • Knowledge and beliefs about an object • Behavioral Component • Predisposition to action • Intentions • Behavioral expectations

21. Ranking in orderof preference Rating in orderof magnitude Choosing a preferred alternative Sorting to arrange or classify Techniques for Measuring Attitudes Measuring Attitudes

22. Attitude Measuring Processes • Ranking • Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in overall performance on the basis of a characteristic or stimulus. • Rating • Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.

23. Attitude Measuring Processes • Sorting • Presenting the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and requiring the respondent to arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts. • Choice • Asking a respondent to choose one alternative from among several alternatives; it is assumed that the chosen alternative is preferred over the others.

24. Attitude Rating Scales • Simple Attitude Scale • Requires that an individual agree/disagree with a statement or respond to a single question. • This type of self-rating scale classifies respondents into one of two categories (e.g.; yes or no). • Example: THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

25. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Category Scale • A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in that it can have more than two response categories. • Question construction is an extremely important factor in increasing the usefulness of these scales. • Example: How important were the following in your decision to visit San Diego? (check one for each item) VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________ COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________ FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________ EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS ___________ ___________ ___________ FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

26. EXHIBIT 10.6Selected Category Scales

27. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Method for Summated Ratings: Likert Scale • A popular means for measuring attitudes. • Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. • Typical response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”. • Example:It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy one. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

28. EXHIBIT 10.7Likert Scale Items for Measuring Attitudes toward Patients’ Interaction with a Physician’s Service Staff Source: Stephen W. Brown and Teresa A. Swarts, “A Gap Analysis of Professional Service Quality,” Journal of Marketing, April 1989, p. 95.

29. Attitude Rating Scales Techniques • Reverse Recoding • A method of making sure all the items forming a composite scale are scored in the same direction. • Negative items can be recoded into the equivalent responses for a non-reverse coded item.

30. Attitude Rating Scales Techniques • Composite Scale • A way of representing a latent construct by summing or averaging respondents’ reactions to multiple items each assumed to indicate the latent construct. • Item Analysis • Ensures that final items evoke a wide response and discriminate among those subjects with positive and negative attitudes. • Only a set of items showing good reliability and validity should be summed or averaged to form a composite scale representing a hypothetical construct.

31. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Semantic Differential • A series of seven-point rating scales with bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale. • A weight is assigned to each position on the scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3. • Example: Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Calm Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Dull Simple ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

32. EXHIBIT 10.8Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes toward Supermarkets Source: Julie H. Yu, Gerald Albaum, and Michael Swenson, “Is a Central Tendency Error Inherent in the Use of Semantic Differential Scales in Different Cultures?” International Journal of Market Research, Summer 2003, downloaded from Business & Company Resource Center, http://galenet.galegroup.com.

33. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Image Profile • A graphic representation of semantic differential data for competing brands, products, or stores to highlight comparisons. • Because the data are assumed to be interval, either the arithmetic mean or the median will be used to compare the profile of one product, brand, or store with that of a competing product, brand, or store.

34. EXHIBIT 10.9Image Profile of Commuter Airlines versus Major Airlines Source: J. Richard Jones and Sheila I. Cocke, “A Performance Evaluation of Commuter Airlines: The Passengers’ View,” Proceedings: Transportation Research Forum 22 (1981), p. 524. Reprinted with permission.

35. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Numerical Scales • Scales that have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space” or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions). • In practice, researchers have found that a scale with numerical labels for intermediate points on the scale is as effective a measure as the true semantic differential. • Example: • Now that you’ve had your automobile for about one year, please tell us how satisfied you are with your Ford Taurus.Extremely Dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely Satisfied

36. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Stapel Scale • Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. • Tends to be easier to conduct and administer than a semantic differential scale. • Example: • Measuring a Store’s ImageStore Name +3 +2 +1 <Wide Selection> -1 -2 -3Based on the strength of your belief, select a minus number if you disagree with the adjective, or select a positive number if you agree with the adjective.

37. EXHIBIT 10.10A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image Source: Dennis Menezes and Norbert F. Elbert, “Alternative Semantic Scaling Formats for Measuring Store Image: An Evaluation,” Journal of Marketing Research, February 1979, pp. 80–87. Reprinted by permission of the American Marketing Association.

38. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Constant-sum Scale • Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of attributes • Respondents often sort cards, but the task may also be a rating task (e.g., indicating brand preference). • Example: • Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand: • Brand A _________ • Brand B _________ • Brand C _________

39. Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) • Graphic Rating Scale • A measure of attitude that allows respondents to rate an object by choosing any point along a graphic continuum. • Advantage: allows the researcher to choose any interval desired for scoring purposes. • Disadvantage: there are no standard answers. • Thurstone Scale • Judges assign scale values to attitudinal statements and subjects are asked to respond to these statements.

40. EXHIBIT 10.11 Graphic Rating Scale

41. EXHIBIT 10.12A Ladder Scale

42. EXHIBIT 10.13Graphic Rating Scale with Picture Response Categories Stressing Visual Communication

43. EXHIBIT 10.14Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Rating Scales

44. Measuring Behavioral Intention • Behavioral Component • The behavioral expectations (expected future actions) of an individual toward an attitudinal object. • Buying intention: the behavioral tendency to seek additional information, or plans to visit a showroom. • Example: • How likely is it that you will purchase an mp3 player? • I definitely will buy • I probably will buy • I might buy • I probably will not buy • I definitely will not buy

45. Measuring Behavioral Intention (cont’d) • Behavioral Differential • Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects. • A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales. • Example:A 25 year-old woman sales representativeWould ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not ask this person for advice.

46. Ranking • Paired Comparison • A measurement technique that involves presenting the respondent with two objects and asking the respondent to pick the preferred object; more than two objects may be presented, but comparisons are made in pairs. • Example:I would like to know your overall opinion of two brands of adhesive bandages. They are MedBand and Super-Aid. Overall, which of these two brands—MedBand or Super-Aid—do you think is the better one? Or are both the same? MedBand is better _____ Super-Aid is better _____ They are the same _____

47. Sorting • Sorting Tasks • Require that respondents indicate their attitudes or beliefs by arranging items on the basis of perceived similarity or some other attribute. • Example: • Here is a sheet that lists several airlines. Next to the name of each airline is a pocket. Here are ten cards. I would like you to put these cards in the pockets next to the airlines you would prefer to fly on your next trip. Assume that all of the airlines fly to wherever you would choose to travel. You can put as many cards as you want next to an airline, or you can put no cards next to an airline. Cards American Airlines _____ Delta Airlines _____ United Airlines _____ Southwest Airlines _____ Northwest Airlines _____

48. Measurement Concept Operationalization Scales Correspondence rules Construct Nominal scales Ordinal scales Interval scales Ratio scales Attribute Index measure Composite measures Reliability Validity Sensitivity Attitude Hypothetical construct Ranking Rating Sorting Choice Category scale Likert scale Key Terms and Concepts

49. Reverse recoding Composite scale Semantic differential Image profile Numerical scale Stapel scale Constant-sum scale Graphic rating scale Behavioral differential Paired comparison Key Terms and Concepts (cont’d)