Sociocultural Approaches to Teaching to the Advanced Level: The Pedagogical Imperative

1. Sociocultural Approaches to Teaching to the Advanced Level: The Pedagogical Imperative James P. Lantolf Penn State University June 20, 2012 UCLA Heritage Language Institute jpl7@psu.edu calper.la.psu.edu

2. Plan of Action • 1. Background: SLA & SCT • 2. Bridging a GAP • 3. What GAP? • 4. Principles of SCT Developmental Education • 5. Concept-Based Instruction • 6. Examples: English, Spanish, Chinese • 7. Optional: Metaphor & Figurative Language • 8. Conclusion • 9. Sources & Resources

3. Knowledge & SLA • The expectation that SLA research should somehow have immediate consequences for the classroom is predicated on certain assumptions and misunderstandings. SLA research should not be expected to improve instruction but it should inform so that teachers understand and gain insight into what the processes are that guide learning. (VanPatten 2010) • “the imperative command that knowledge shall serve purpose, and learning be applied to the problem of human life” (Carl Becker 1912)

4. Theory/Research ***** Practice • van Lier (1994: 30) • There has occurred a sort of ‘double split’-- linguistics (and SLA) with theory in one direction, and education with practice in another -- and this split needs to be resolvedbefore we can once again speak of a healthy AL (applied linguistics)

5. A dichotomy • Bygate (2005) • SLA by the 1980s had ‘declared itself a distinct area from language pedagogy research, with the principle aim of researching all aspects of second language acquisition as an academic discipline in its own right’

6. Gass & Mackey (2007) • ‘The interaction approach, like most other accounts of second language acquisition, is primarily focused on how languages are learned. Thus, direct application to the classroom may be premature’

7. The fundamental psycholinguistic process of second language acquisition is the same whether learners enter classrooms or acquire language outside of them. (Gass 1989),

8. Bridging the Theory **** Practice Gap Erlam(2008) Ellis (2009) • Convert technical knowledge into practical knowledge • Summaries of literature that are accessible to teachers • Make technical knowledge relevant • Ten Principles of effective instructed L2 learning based on findings of SLA research

9. Sample Principles • Ensure that learners focus primarily on meaning • Ensure that learners also focus on form • Instruction mainly directed at developing implicit knowledge BUTnot neglect explicit knowledge • Instruction needs to take into account learner’s built-in syllabus

10. An Alternative Approach: SCT • Overcome dualistic thinking of SLA • Implicit vs. Explicit • Learning vs. Acquisition • Performance vs. Competence • Teaching vs. Learning • Human as subject OR object > human as Subject & Object • humans shape the world they live in and AT THE SAME TIME the world shapes humans

11. Education as Artificial Development of the Person • Education: grounded in explicit mediation is ‘artificial development’ of the individual. • ‘restructures all functions of behavior in a most essential manner’ (Vygotsky 1997)

12. Teaching/Learning Dialectic (Cole 2009) • Obuchenie: double-sided process • Learning (change in psychological process & knowledge) • Organization of environment by adults • everyday world as when adults mediate children into a culture • formal educational setting • instruction

13. Comparing SLA and SCT • SLA grounded in the ontology of the autonomous individual • Development occurs inside of the head • Cognitive Perspective • Social provides support for development • SCT grounded in the ontology of the social individual • Development occurs at the nexus of the person and the other • Also cognitive but cognition is not exclusively in the head • Social is the source of (cultural) development

14. SLA-SCT • SLA • focuses on and privileges learning over teaching • all developmental mechanisms are inside the learner [the container] • SCT • focuses on dialectical unity of teaching/learning • obuchenie is a central mechanism in development

15. The Vygotskian Project The challenge: Createrather than observe psychological processes [including through education] that set individuals free (AGENCY through language) (Stetsenko & Arievitch 2004)

16. Defining Agency in SCTMiller (2012) • Agency: competent planned self-regulation. The Zone of Proximal Development (effective educational practice) is a process in which an actor following instructions becomes transformed into an agent issuing instructions. • Internal mediation whereby the actions of the agent are experienced as happenings to the agent.

17. Agency: Pre-Understanding > Understanding • Intentionality—understanding in action mediated by reason or purpose • Determines direction or course of action • Agent relies on (pre) understanding to produce action • Child wishing to obtain candy on high shelf • Sees chair and stick in area but doesn’t think of using either as tool • Pre-understanding of chair is as object for sitting • Adult mediates shift in understanding • Chair can be used for standing • How?

18. Preunderstanding > Understanding • In acquiring new understanding, learner must suspend existing understanding, or pre-understanding that may block learning process. • Being told to stand on chair may work • Being told that height and width of container must be taken into account in judgments about quantity of liquid in container may not. • No amount of staring at liquid in container will produce understanding about conversion. This will entrench pre-understanding. Action that challenges pre-understanding is needed to shed it.

19. Mediation • Mediation as a form of other-regulation is a means of penetrating the circle of understanding by furnishing the mediatee not with ready-made understanding but with alternative pre-understandings that facilitate rather than obstruct engagement with a task. • Mediation in the ZPD—dislodges existing pre-understanding of the mediatee that leads to new understanding.

20. Education as Mediated Activity(Miller 20102) • Zone of Proximal Development • Performing without competence • Under guidance of other • NOT a DIALOGUE • Mediator and mediatee do not share common understanding of situation. • Not subject to same dynamics that govern conversation

21. Mediation vs. Dialogue(Miller 2012) • Mediation -- Dialogue different kinds of communication • Dialogue: meanings/understandings exchanged When mutual understanding does not exist, dialogue breaks down. Different form of communicated need to restore dialogue • Mediation in ZPD: new understanding in situations where pre-understanding is inadequate • Mediator: entrench tradition that informs her/his understanding through monologue because instruction does not invite exchange of ideas • Mediatee: appropriate new understanding that dislodges current pre-understanding

22. Scientific Concept as Unit of Instruction • Scientific Concept • Coherent. Systematic & Abstract • Generative & Recontextualizable • Everyday Concept • Lack generality, abstractness, & independence • Limited contexts of applicability • Valsiner (2001) & Kozulin (1998)

23. The Argument • Scientific Knowledge of L2 • Primary unit of classroom instruction & development • Conscious awareness and control • Speeded-up Processing (Paradis, 2009) • Grounded in systematic linguistic research • From the outset of an instructional program • Not an argument against CLT • Dialectical Unity of Explicit Knowledge & Communicative Performance

24. Michel Paradis (2009). Declarative and procedural determinants of second languages • While L1 is not like learning to draw Mickey Mouse, L2 for most adults, especially in non-immersion experiences is. • Learning and performance guided by declarative knowledge • Knowledge of L2 is equivalent to L1 lexical knowledge—declarative • Declarative knowledge cannot become proceduralized or implicit as L1 is. • Declarative knowledge can become speeded up or accelerated • Declarative knowledge performance can serve as input to implicit learning system in some cases

25. Language as Object – Language as Subject(Widdowson 2002) • Object: what users actually do • Relevant for linguistic theorizing to uncover nature of language • Subject: a language we teach • Pedagogically treated language • Essential and salient aspects of grammar, semantic potential, pragmatics • Conceptual knowledge = explanation • Contextual knowledge = exemplification

26. Receptivity vs. Passivity • Active Construction Passive Reception Active Reception

27. Systemic-Theoretical Instruction: P. Galperin • Explanation • Presentation of Scientific Concept • Materialization/Visualization • Concretize as SCOBA [Schema for Orienting Basis of Action] • Communication • Goal-directed oral and written performance • Strategic Interaction [Di Pietro 1987] • Verbalization [social and private languaging] • Of Concept using SCOBA • Use SCOBA to explain performance • Internalization & Speeded-up Processing

28. Rule-of-Thumb Reductive Empirically based Highly Context Dependent Gives impression that language is about using right forms and avoiding wrong forms--language controls the person • Rather than that language is a cultural artifact to construct the meanings they need for communicative and cognitive activity

29. Example of Rule-of-Thumb • Spanish Aspect (Preterit vs. Imperfect) • Preterit: “reports, records, narrates, and in the case of certain verbs (e.g., saber, querer, poder) causes a change of meaning • Imperfect: “tells what was happening, recalls what used to happen describes a physical or mental emotion, tells time in the past, describes the background and sets the stage upon which another action occurred” • (Whitely 1986)

30. Negueruela2003 on Rule of Thumb • A concrete understanding of a linguistic concept, such as a rule of thumb, lack generality, abstractness, coherence, independence, functionality, and significance, since it can only be applied with difficulty to one context: namely the fill-in the blank activity or the constrained sentence level translation exercise.

31. Negueruela (2003) on Concept • A theoretical concept is a coherent systematic general meaning that can be recontextualized for a variety of tasks. Its regulatory power comes from abstract generalization and conceptual specification (Valsiner 2001).

32. SCT & Cognitive • Psychological – Linguistic Theories • Meaning is Primary • Structure is Secondary and Derived • Connect Language to the World • Meaning is Flexible and Context Dependent • Language not modular • Connected to other cognitive capacities

33. Lee (2011). Concept-based approach to second language teaching and learning • Participants: 23 graduate students in ESL course • 21 in Ph.D. programs. 2 in MA programs • Math, statistics, chemistry, entomology, engineering (chemical, mechanical, civil), computer science, forestry, economics • L1 • Chinese = 15 (12 China; 3 Taiwan) • Korea = 6 • Thailand = 2 • Residency in US • 19 < one year • 3 between 1.5 & 3 years

34. Verb-Particles Constructions (Lee 2011)

35. SCOBA for Particle OUT 2. Move out of group or set 3. Move out of container 4. Container increase in size

36. Summary of Quantitative Analysis

37. Verbal Aspect (Yañez-Prieto 2008)General Concept • Stage I • Lexical Aspect • Inherent in verbs reflecting nature of events in world • Perfective: beginning and end of event coincide • Jump, throw, shoot, hit, etc. • Imperfective: once initiated continues indefinitely • Run, walk, talk, look, read, resemble, etc.

38. Verbal AspectRefining the Concept • Stage II • Dynamicity: distinguish events from states • Events • Activities: no specific end point--run, walk, talk, swim • Accomplishments: extended in time with end point--run a race, paint a picture, build a chair • Achievements: inherent end point--jump, throw, shoot • Telicity: clear end point • Achievements & Accomplishments • Activities & States are atelic--no clear end point • Durativity: extend over time • Accomplishment and activities • Achievements are non-durative or punctual

39. Lexical Aspect

40. Verbal Aspect & Grammar • Stage III • Grammar allows user to override lexical aspect in order to bring a specific temporal perspective into linguistic discourse-- NEW PROFILE TEMPORAL FEATURES OF EVENT OR SITUATION • Morphological Endings of Verbs • Estar‘to be’ (stative verb and therefore inherently, non-dynamic, durative and atelic) can be brought into discourse as TELIC • Estuvo en Madrid unasemana‘He/she was in Madrid for a week.

41. SCOBA: Verbal Aspect(Yañez-Prieto 2008)

42. SCOBA: Verbal Aspect(Yañez-Prieto 2008)

43. SCOBA: Verbal Aspect(Yañez-Prieto 2008)

44. SCOBA: Verbal Aspect(Yañez-Prieto 2008)

45. SCOBA: Verbal Aspect(Yañez-Prieto 2008)

46. Link to Practice: Literature • Cognitive Dissonance • Activity 1: Julio Cortázar--Continuidad de los parques • “Primero entraba la mujer, recelosa; ahora llegaba el amante, lastimada la cara por el chicotazo de una rama” [“First, the woman entered-imperfect fearfully; now, the lover arrived-imperfect with his face slashed from an encounter with a branch”] • Activity 2: compare with aspect in a Spanish soap-opera • Activity 3: students write about an emotional event in their life

47. Aspect: Making Meaning • Emma: • Pero esa noche, mi papá no nos molestaba con sus preguntas y mi mama ni siquiera levantaba la vista de su plato. Esa noche, el silencio no era cómodo; era pesado y fuerte. Llenaba el cuarto, hundiendo a mi familia, y mis hermanas y yo cruzábamos miradas preocupadas. Algo no estaba bien. • [But that night, my dad did-imperfect not bother us with his questions and my mom did-imperfect not even raise her eyes from her plate. That night silence was-imperfect not comfortable; it was-imperfect heavy and strong. It filled-imperfect the room, sinking my family, and my sisters and I crossed-imperfect worried glances. Something was-imperfect not right.]

48. Aspect: Making her own meaning • Emma: • Descendí la escalera lentamente, sin sentir los escalones bajo los pies. Con cada paso hacia su cuarto mi corazón latió más alto. Cuando llegué a su cuarto, era oscuro y callado y mi mamá estaba en la cama, los ojos cerrados. • [I went-preterit down the stairs slowly, without feeling the treads under my feet. With each footstep towards her room my heart beat-preterit louder. When I arrived-preterit at her room, it was-imperfect dark and quiet and my mom was-imperfect in bed, with her eyes closed.] (Yáñez Prieto 2008)

49. Emma Understanding • Although a lot of my paper could have been written in either imperfect or preterit, I tried to use each tense strategically to convey different meanings. For example, when I was talking about the moments when we were in the dining room in silence, I used imperfect to depict everything as if the reader was there in the middle of the action, seeing everything as it was happening

50. Emma Understanding • “When I went to my mom’s room to see her after I found out that she was sick, I used preterit for all the verbs. This time I wanted to show each action as a complete act”