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Respiration

STUDY. This Information. Respiration. Part 1. Impacts, Issues Up in Smoke. Smoking immobilizes ciliated cells and kills white blood cells that defend the respiratory system; highly addictive nicotine discourages quitting. The Nature of Respiration.

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Respiration

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  1. STUDY This Information Respiration Part 1

  2. Impacts, IssuesUp in Smoke • Smoking immobilizes ciliated cells and kills white blood cells that defend the respiratory system; highly addictive nicotine discourages quitting

  3. The Nature of Respiration • All animals must supply their cells with oxygen and rid their body of carbon dioxide • Respiration • The physiological process by which an animal exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with its environment

  4. Interactions with Other Organ Systems

  5. food, water intake oxygen intake elimination of carbon dioxide Digestive System Respiratory System nutrients, water, salts carbon dioxide oxygen Circulatory System Urinary System water, solutes elimination of food residues rapid transport to and from all living cells elimination of excess water, salts, wastes Fig. 39-2b, p. 682

  6. The Basis of Gas Exchange • Respiration depends on diffusion of gaseous oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) down their concentration gradients • Gases enter and leave the internal environment across a thin, moist layer (respiratory surface) that dissolves the gases

  7. Partial Pressure • Partial pressure • Of the total atmospheric pressure measured by a mercury barometer (760 mm Hg), O2 contributes 21% (160 mm Hg) 760 mm Hg Fig. 39-3, p. 682

  8. Factors Affecting Diffusion Rates STUDY • Factors that increase diffusion of gases across a respiratory surface: • High partial pressure gradient of a gas across the respiratory surface • High surface-to-volume ratio • High ventilation rate (movement of air or water across the respiratory surface)

  9. Respiratory Proteins STUDY • Respiratory proteins contain one or more metal ions that reversibly bind to oxygen atoms • Hemoglobin: An iron-containing respiratory protein found in vertebrate red blood cells • Myoglobin: A respiratory protein found in muscles of vertebrates and some invertebrates

  10. Gasping for Oxygen • Rising water temperatures, slowing streams, and organic pollutants reduce the dissolved oxygen (DO) available for aquatic species

  11. Principles of Gas Exchange • Respiration is the sum of processes that move ________ from air or water in the environment to all metabolically active ________ and move __________ from those tissues to the outside • Oxygen levels are more stable in air than in water

  12. Principles of Gas Exchange • Respiration is the sum of processes that move oxygen from air or water in the environment to all metabolically active tissues and move carbon dioxide from those tissues to the outside • Oxygen levels are more stable in air than in water

  13. Invertebrate Respiration STUDY • Integumentary exchange • Some invertebrates that live in aquatic or damp environments have no respiratory organs; • Gases diffuse across the skin • Gills • Filamentous respiratory organs that increase surface area for gas exchange in water • Lungs • Saclike respiratory organs with branching tubes that deliver air to a respiratory surface • Snails and slugs that spend some time on land have a lung instead of, or in addition to, gills

  14. Snails with Lungs

  15. Invertebrate Respiration STUDY • Tracheal system • Insects and spiders with a hard integument have branching tracheal tubes that open to the surface through spiracles (no respiratory protein required) • Book lungs • Some spiders also have thin sheets of respiratory tissue that exchange oxygen with a respiratory pigment (hemocyanin) in blood

  16. trachea (tube inside body) spiracle (opening to body surface) STUDY Insect Tracheal System Fig. 39-7, p. 685

  17. STUDY air-filled space blood-filled space book lung A Spider’s Book Lung Fig. 39-8, p. 685

  18. Key ConceptsGas Exchange in Invertebrates • Gas exchange occurs across the body surface or gills of aquatic invertebrates • In large invertebrates on land, it occurs across a moist, internal respiratory surface or at fluid-filled tips of branching tubes that extend from the surface to internal tissues

  19. Vertebrate Respiration • Fishes use gills to extract oxygen from water • Countercurrent flow aids exchange (blood flows through gills in opposite direction of water flow) • Amphibians exchange gases across their skin, and at respiratory surfaces of paired lungs • Larvae have external gills

  20. Fish Gills (a) Location of the gill cover of a bony fish. gill cover Fig. 39-9a, p. 686

  21. STUDY mouth open gill cover closed (b) Water is sucked into the mouth and over the gills when a fish closes its gill covers, opens its mouth, and expands its oral cavity. Fig. 39-9b, p. 686

  22. STUDY mouth closed gill cover open (c) The water moves out when the fish closes its mouth, opens its gill covers, and squeezes the water past its gills. Fig. 39-9c, p. 686

  23. Countercurrent Flow STUDY gill filaments one gill arch water is sucked into mouth Water exits through gill slits A A bony fish with its gill cover removed. Water flows in through the mouth, flows over the gills, then exits through gill slits. Each gill has bony gill arches to which the gill filaments attach. Fig. 39-10a, p. 686

  24. STUDY respiratory surface gill arch gill filament fold with a capillary bed inside direction of blood flow water flow oxygen-poor blood from deep in body oxygenated blood back toward body B Two gill arches with filaments C Countercurrent flow of water and blood Fig. 39-10 (b-c), p. 686

  25. Frog Respiration STUDY A B C D Lowering the floor of the mouth draws air inward through nostrils. Closing nostrils and raising the floor of the mouth pushes air into lungs. Rhythmically raising and lowering the floor of the mouth assists gas exchange. Contracting chest muscles and raising the floor of the mouth forces air out of lungs, and the frog exhales. Fig. 39-11, p. 687

  26. Vertebrate Respiration • Reptiles, birds and mammals exchange gases through paired lungs, ventilated by chest muscles • Birds have the most efficient vertebrate lungs • Air sacs allow oxygen-rich air to pass respiratory surfaces on both inhalation and exhalation

  27. A Inhalation 1 Muscles expand chest cavity, drawing air in through nostrils. Some of the air flowing in through the trachea goes to lungs and some goes to posterior air sacs. Bird Respiratory System STUDY trachea anterior air sacs lung B Exhalation 1 Anterior air sacs empty. Air from posterior air sacs moves into lungs. posterior air sacs C Inhalation2 Air in lungs moves to anterior air sacs and is replaced by newly inhaled air. D Exhalation 2 Air in anterior air sacs moves out of the body and air from posterior sacs flows into the lungs. Fig. 39-12, p. 687

  28. Fig. 39-12 (inset), p. 687

  29. Human Respiratory System STUDY • The human respiratory system functions in gas exchange, sense of smell, voice production, body defenses, acid-base balance, and temperature regulation

  30. Airways STUDY • Air enters through nose or mouth, flows through the pharynx (throat) and the larynx (voice box) • Vocal cords change the size of the glottis • The epiglottis protects the trachea, which branches into two bronchi, one to each lung • Cilia and mucus-secreting cells clean airways

  31. glottis closed glottis open vocal cords glottis (closed) epiglottis tongue’s base STUDY Larynx: Vocal Cords and Glottis Fig. 39-14, p. 689

  32. From Airways to Alveoli STUDY • Inside each lung, bronchi branch into bronchioles that deliver air to alveoli • Alveoli are small sacs, one cell thick, where gases are exchanged with pulmonary capillaries

  33. Muscles and Respiration STUDY • Muscle movements change the volume of the thoracic cavity during breathing • Diaphragm • A broad sheet of smooth muscle below the lungs • Separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities • Intercostal muscles • Skeletal muscles between the ribs

  34. Functions of the Respiratory System Nasal Cavity Chamber in which air is moistened, warmed, and filtered, and in which sounds resonate Oral Cavity (Mouth) Supplemental airway when breathing is labored Pharynx (Throat) Airway connecting nasal cavity and mouth with larynx; enhances sounds; also connects with esophagus Epiglottis Pleural Membrane Closes off larynx during swallowing Double-layer membrane with a fluid-filled space between layers; keeps lungs airtight and helps them stick to chest wall during breathing Larynx (Voice Box) Airway where sound is produced; closed off during swallowing Trachea (Windpipe) Airway connecting larynx with two bronchi that lead into the lungs Intercostal Muscles At rib cage, skeletal muscles with roles in breathing. There are two sets of intercostal muscles (external and internal) Lung (One of a Pair) Lobed, elastic organ of breathing; enhances gas exchange between internal environment and outside air Bronchial Tree Increasingly branched airways starting with two bronchi and ending at air sacs (alveoli) of lung tissue Diaphragm Muscle sheet between the chest cavity and abdominal cavity with roles in breathing STUDY Fig. 39-13a, p. 688

  35. alveolar sac (sectioned) bronchiole alveolar duct alveoli STUDY Fig. 39-13b, p. 688

  36. alveolar sac STUDY pulmonary capillary Fig. 39-13c, p. 688

  37. Cyclic Reversals in Air Pressure Gradients STUDY • Respiratory cycle • One inhalation and one exhalation • Inhalation is always active • Contraction of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles increases volume of thoracic cavity • Air pressure in alveoli drops below atmospheric pressure; air moves inward

  38. Cyclic Reversals in Air Pressure Gradients STUDY • Exhalation is usually passive • As muscles relax, the thoracic cavity shrinks • Air pressure in the alveoli rises above atmospheric pressure, air moves out • Exhalation may be active • Contraction of abdominal muscles forces air out

  39. The Thoracic Cavity and the Respiratory Cycle

  40. Inward flow of air A Inhalation. Diaphragm contracts, moves down. External intercostal muscles contract, lift rib cage upward and outward. Lung volume expands. Fig. 39-15a, p. 690

  41. Outward flow of air B Exhalation. Diaphragm, external intercostal muscles return to resting positions. Rib cage moves down. Lungs recoil passively. Fig. 39-15b, p. 690

  42. Supplemental: First Aid for Choking • Heimlich maneuver • Upward-directed force on the diaphragm forces air out of lungs to dislodge an obstruction

  43. Respiratory Volumes • Air in lungs is partially replaced with each breath • Lungs are never emptied of air (residual volume) • Vital capacity • Maximum volume of air the lungs can exchange • Tidal volume • Volume of air that moves in and out during a normal respiratory cycle

  44. Respiratory Volumes

  45. Control of Breathing • Neurons in the medulla oblongata of the brain stem are the control center for respiration • Rhythmic signals from the brain cause muscle contractions that cause air to flow into the lungs • Chemoreceptors in the medulla, carotid arteries, and aorta wall detect chemical changes in blood, and adjust breathing patterns

  46. STIMULUS CO2 concentration and acidity rise in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid. RESPONSE Chemoreceptors in wall of carotid arteries and aorta Respiratory center in brain stem CO2 concentration and acidity decline in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid. Diaphragm, Intercostal muscles Tidal volume and rate of breathing change. Respiratory Responses Stepped Art Fig. 39-18, p. 691

  47. Gas Exchange and Transport • Gases diffuse between a pulmonary capillary and an alveolus at the respiratory membrane • Alveolar epithelium • Capillary endothelium • Fused basement membranes • O2 and CO2 each follow their partial pressure gradient across the membrane

  48. The Respiratory Membrane alveolar epithelium red blood cell inside pulmonary capillary pore for air flow between adjoining alveoli capillary endothelium fused basement membranes of both epithelial tissues air space inside alveolus a Surface view of capillaries associated with alveoli b Cutaway view of one of the alveoli and adjacent pulmonary capillaries c Three components of the respiratory membrane Fig. 39-19, p. 692

  49. Oxygen Transport • In alveoli, partial pressure of O2 is high; oxygen binds with hemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) • In metabolically active tissues, partial pressure of O2 is low; HbO2 releases oxygen • Myoglobin, found in some muscle tissues, is similar to hemoglobin but holds O2 more tightly

  50. alpha globin alpha globin Structure of hemoglobin, the oxygen-transporting protein of red blood cells. It consists of four globin chains, each associated with an iron-containing heme group, color-coded red. beta globin beta globin Hemoglobin Fig. 39-20a, p. 693

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