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Chapter 8

Chapter 8. Vicarious Learning. Vicarious Learning. Observational learning Change in behaviour due to the experience of observing a model Anecdotal evidence Cats open cupboards, latches Dog open gates. Early Work on Vicarious Learning. Thorndike Puzzle box

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Chapter 8

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  1. Chapter 8 Vicarious Learning

  2. Vicarious Learning • Observational learning • Change in behaviour due to the experience of observing a model • Anecdotal evidence • Cats open cupboards, latches • Dog open gates

  3. Early Work on Vicarious Learning • Thorndike • Puzzle box • Experienced model, naïve learner • Animals don’t learn by observation • Many animals need to observe successes and failures

  4. Not so simple… • Some behaviours may LOOK like observational learning, but aren’t… • Contagious Behaviour • Social Facilitation • Local/Stimulus Enhancement • Affordances • Mimicking/Imitation

  5. Contagious Behaviour • Species-typical behaviour is released when others perform the behaviour • Test performance with model absent • Example • You may eat when you’re already full if you are with others who are eating • Same with animals…

  6. Social Facilitation or Interference • Performance is changed based on the mere presence of others • Get better at easy, well-trained tasks • Get worse at difficult tasks • Before/After tests, baseline, control group • Example • Performing better at competitions, shows, tournaments • Slacking off at work • Zanjonc – cockroaches in easy & difficult mazes

  7. Local or Stimulus Enhancement • Attraction to objects which others are using, then learn about object on own • Attraction to locations where others have been • Not learning from others, just attract attention to object • Two-Action Tests • Example • A chimp is attracted to a stick that another has discarded. The attraction allows for learning experiences with the stick.

  8. Affordances • Actions of the model show the observer about the way the environment operates • Model is not strictly necessary • Two-Action with same affordance • Example • An observer watches a model push open a door and learns that the door swings outwards • Model not necessary, a string pulling the door open could result in same conclusion

  9. Mimickry or Imitation • “Copy-catting”; reproduction of observed behaviour • Doesn’t necessarily show learning! • Outcome • Example • Dick & Anne get to take a treat from one of two bowls • One bowl contains good candy, one has yucky candy • Dick reaches into the “green” bowl and gets the bad candy • If Anne reaches into the “green” bowl, she has imitated but not learned!

  10. Human Infants & Imitation • At what age can humans imitate? • Metzolff & Moore (1977) • 12 to 21 day old infants • Facial gestures: tongue protrusion, mouth open, lip protrusion

  11. Experiment • Experimenter: 90 sec passive face (baseline) • Infant shown gesture four times • Imitation-test period • Video taped and scored by “blind” judges • Supports imitation

  12. Results 50 10 % of mouth open response % of tongue-out response 25 5 baseline tongue-out mouth open baseline tongue-out mouth open Experimenter’s Gesture Experimenter’s Gesture

  13. Infant Research • Replication difficult • Tongue protrusion elicited by other means • Infants’ attention: general arousal? • Evolutionary advantage • Observing and copying behaviour of parents, siblings, etc. may bring more attention • Is it vicarious learning?

  14. Generalized Imitation • Don’t see the outcome of the model’s behaviour, but the observer imitates anyway • Prior experience with vicarious learning • We learn that imitating others’ behaviour may provide reinforcement • We generalize from one condition to another

  15. Baer & Sherman (1964) • Children observe puppet • Mouthing • Head nodding • Speaking nonsense • Lever presses • Imitation of first 3 behaviours reinforced • All 4 behaviours imitated • Stop reinforcement • All 4 behaviours decrease (extinguish)

  16. Vicarious Classical Conditioning • Debate as to whether or not classical conditioning can be learned vicariously • Does an observer’s behaviour change due to the observation of the model’s behaviour? • Is the observer being directly classically conditioned when observing the model?

  17. Haner & Whitney (1960) • Model has finger on shock-device; observer watches • Model removes finger when light is on • Record GSR of observer • Shock = US • Model’s behaviour = UR • Light = CS • Increased GSR = CR of anxiety

  18. Bernal & Berger (1976) • Observer watched video of eyeblink conditioning of model • Tone paired with airpuff • Recorded observers’ tendency to blink • Observers acquire eyeblink CR to tone

  19. But... • In this study, could be higher-order classical conditioning • Seeing someone blink might be a CS for blinking yourself • Previously see people blink, if you blink you avoid aversive US • Tone could be CS2 to previously learned CS1

  20. Venn & Short (1973) Model Shows Fear to Mickey Mouse Toy 75 50 25 • Baseline measure • Watch video • Boy shows fear or liking of Mickey Mouse toy over Donald Duck toy • Key pressing for M&Ms Responses on Key (%) Before Observing Model After Observing Model Mickey Mouse Donald Duck

  21. Observation of Conditioning • No observation of CS-US pairing • i.e. toy never paired with US • Change in observers’ behaviour due to toy paired with reaction of model (fear or liking) • basicclassical conditioning • not necessarily vicariouslearning • Similar to prejudice where US was positive/negative words • US = positive/negative reaction of model

  22. Vicarious Operant Conditioning • Some evidence that operant conditioning can be acquired through vicarious learning • Important to distinguish from stimulus enhancement • Observe model’s reinforcement or punishment

  23. Levy, McClinton, Rabinowitz & Wolkin (1974) • Children observed model look at paired pictures, indicating preferences • Model received approval, disapproval, or neutral consequences • Observers’ subsequent preferences were for the pictures that the models received approval for selecting

  24. Dorrance & Zentall (2001) • Japanese quail • Models trained to peck or step on treadle • http://www.pigeon.psy.tufts.edu/avc/zentall/default.htm • Two-action method controls for stimulus/local enhancement • Treadle always gets pressed down, so affordances are the same

  25. Methods • Observers watched one model either peck at or step on treadle • Later tested in absence of model • Not contagious behaviour or social facilitation

  26. Variables affecting Vicarious Learning

  27. Characteristics of the Model • Authority • Dominance • Similarity • Sincerity • Attractiveness • Venus Effect

  28. Characteristics of the Learner • Uncertainty • Sex • Age

  29. Characteristics of the Situation • Task uncertainty • Task difficulty • Presentation of model

  30. Theories

  31. Bandura’s Studies • Bobo the Clown experiments • Children as observers • Watched various models demonstrating behaviours • Consequences of model’s behaviour • Availability of reward

  32. Model Observers

  33. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory • Attentional processes • Retentional processes • Motor reproductive processes • Incentive and motivational processes

  34. Miller-Dollard Reinforcement Theory • Vicarious learning as a variant of operant conditioning • Observer’s behaviour changes due to consequences of observer’s behaviour • Three steps: • 1. Learner observes behaviour of model • 2. Learner copies response • 3. Learner receives reinforcement

  35. Possible Problems • Absence of model • Latent learning • Delays in behaviour common • Lack of reinforcement • Generalized imitation

  36. Comparison • Bandura’s theory • Innate processes, learning, and cognition • Future expectations • Reinforcement theory • Behavioural; operant conditioning • Past experiences

  37. Applications

  38. Foraging • Birds opening milk containers, pecking through creamers • Stimulus enhancement? • Foraging locations • Local enhancement?

  39. Television Violence • National Television Violence Study (1998) • 8000 hours of programming • 7 days/week, 6AM-11PM for 3 years • 60% of programs contained violence • Less than 4% contained anti-violence message • By age 12, average child has seen 8,000 murders and over 100,000 other acts of violence on TV

  40. Bandura et al (1963) • 5 minute video of Rocky & Johnny • Johnny plays with toys • Rocky asks to share, but Johnny says no • Rocky beats Johnny up • Rocky plays with toys • Rocky puts all the toys in a sack and takes them home • Watched how often children played aggressively (hit Bobo doll) • One little girl asked for a sack

  41. In real life… • Causal or Correlational • Correlation does not show causation • 3rd factor?

  42. Developing Phobias • Vicarious acquisition • Prevalence in humans?

  43. Treatment of Phobias • Flooding • Systematic desensitization • Relaxation and shaping

  44. Modeling Treatments • Modeling • Used with the very young • Sometimes more rapid • May be better at generalization • Three types of phobia reduction modeling • 1. Graduated modeling • 2. Symbolic modeling • 3. Participant modeling

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