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Buffalo Soldiers

Buffalo Soldiers. Artist of the West: Frederic Remington. Regular U.S. Army. Primary functions to 20 th century: Frontier constabulary Coastal defense. How was the U.S. to fight wars?. To meet large manpower requirements: Call out state militias Limited federal service

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Buffalo Soldiers

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  1. Buffalo Soldiers

  2. Artist of the West:Frederic Remington

  3. Regular U.S. Army • Primary functions to 20th century: • Frontier constabulary • Coastal defense

  4. How was the U.S. to fight wars? • To meet large manpower requirements: • Call out state militias • Limited federal service • Raise volunteer units • Raised by states (appointed unit officers) • Incorporated into federal armies

  5. Questions: • Attitudes of regular officers? • Relationship between army and American society? • What are the implications of the end of the Indian wars?

  6. U.S. Army in late 19th century • Era of isolation • Efforts at professionalization

  7. Professionalism encompasses: • Expertise • Social Responsibility • Corporateness

  8. Military Professionalism • Expertise: Management of violence • Responsibility: Defense Application of force in pursuit of national goals • Corporateness: Officers

  9. Earlier developments towards military professionalization in U.S. • U.S. Military Academy at West Point (1802) • U.S. Naval Academy at Annapolis (1845-50) • Expansible army

  10. Commanding General of the Army, 1869-1883: • William Tecumseh Sherman • Oversees formation of many military schools and institutions • Helps revive artillery school, 1868 • Encourages engineering school • Forms Military Service Institute, 1878 • Forms School of Application for Infantry and Cavalry, Fort Leavenworth (becomes General Service and Staff College), 1881

  11. Emory Upton • USMA Grad • Distinguished Civil War service • Developed post-war tactical system • Commandant of Cadets at USMA, 1870-75 • Sent on world tour, 1875 • Publications: • The Armies of Asia and Europe, 1878 • The Military Policy of the United States, 1904

  12. Upton argued officers should have greater control of military policy • Criticized civilian leaders’ lack of expertise. • Condemned reliance on volunteers & militia. • Admired Germany. • Wanted new, larger Army staff with greater control of policy, resources. • Called for larger, “expansible” regular army. • For larger manpower needs, advocated “national volunteers” under army control.

  13. Other Army reforms, late 1800’s • Compulsory officer retirement at age 64 (1882). • Examinations required for promotions, up to rank of major (1890). • Regular character and efficiency reports for all officers (mid 1890’s)

  14. The National Guard • 19th century: mandatory militia duty not enforced by the states. • Men interested in militia service joined voluntary companies. • After Civil War, interest in voluntary units picked up in 1870’s, which took name National Guard.

  15. Key function of Guard units:Strike duty • States revamp militia codes, 1881-92. • Guard units called out >700 times, 1877-1903. • Guard units also primary reserve behind regular army. • Under control of states

  16. U.S. Navy • Primary functions to late-19th century • protect commerce • “show the flag” • coastal defense • Additional functions in war • raid enemy commerce • blockade/bombardment*

  17. Navy pursued traditional functions after the Civil War • Size reduced from 700 (1865) to 52 (1870). • Squadron system reinstituted. • focus on Latin America and Asia • Ships mostly: • wooden • wind-powered • armed with muzzle-loading smoothbore guns

  18. 1880’s: Naval modernization begins • Congress authorized building steel-hull vessels. • Authorized retirement of older ships. • New ships reflected Navy’s traditional functions: • Largest vessels cruisers designed for commerce protection/raiding, coercing non-Western peoples.

  19. Beginnings of the “New Navy” • U.S.S. Atlanta • U.S.S. Chicago

  20. Naval Professionalism • Assisted by Stephen B. Luce • Formed: • United States Naval Institute, 1873 • Naval War College, 1884

  21. A “Sea-change” in attitudes,1870-1890 • Calls for an American Empire - an updated form of “Manifest Destiny.” Reflected: • Growing nationalism • Social Darwinism

  22. Commerce • With increasing industrialization, many believed country needed secure access to foreign markets for American goods • Guaranteed access required a strong navy • Rearmament • Advocates feared navy becoming technologically obsolescent • Also reflected career concerns of naval officers

  23. Benjamin F. Tracy,Secretary of the Navy, 1889-93 • Advocated new naval policy: • Strategy should emphasize “command of the sea” utilizing fleets of large warships. • Large navy would require more bases, territories overseas.

  24. Tracy convinces Congress to build 9 battleships before 1898 • U.S.S. Oregon • U.S.S. Iowa

  25. “Prophet” of American Navalism • Alfred Thayer Mahan • Undistinguished career prior to 1886 • Most famous publication: • The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660-1783

  26. Mahan’s writings • Emphasized links between commerce and need for a large navy. • Advocated fleet-oriented, “command of the sea” strategy. • Disparaged guerre de course • Called for additional overseas bases. • Took a skewed view of history. • Ignored developments in technology.

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