. . . a damp dreary place where all manner of wild beasts dash about uncooked.

1. Jeff Marion, Unit Leader Virginia Tech Field Unit Patuxent WL Res Center jmarion@vt.edu Wilderness is . . . . . . a damp dreary place where all manner of wild beasts dash about uncooked. Anonymous, 19th Century

2. Managing Visitor Use Impacts

3. Presentation Objectives • Describe trail management strategies, including: • Trail system assessments • Trail design strategies • Construct resistant trails • Maintain trails to reduce impacts • Manage visitors to reduce impacts • Describe campsite management strategies, including: • Select resistant sites • Construct resistant sites • Provide facilities that reduce impacts • Maintain sites to contain impacts • Manage visitors to reduce impacts 2. Review alternative camping management strategies.

4. If recreation visitation is permitted …

5. . . . some degree of resource impact is inevitable.

6. The Wilderness ManagementChallenge • Prevent avoidable resource and social impacts • Minimize unavoidable impacts • Preserve the quality of resources and recreation experiences

7. Trail System Assessment Existing Inventory of Trails: Evaluate the suitability of what you have in light of trail system objectives. • Are all the trails in the inventory needed? • Do they follow the most resistant alignments, are relocations needed? • Are any new segments needed to fulfill administrative or recreation purposes? • Are the desired types of uses suitable and sustainable?

8. Trail Design Strategies • Select resistant alignments – most important factor (trail alignment relative to topography and trail grade) • Design in rolling grade dips • Construct resistant trails (apply the most sustainable construction practices)

9. Direct-ascent or “fall-line” alignment Side-hill alignment Low Alignment angle High Alignment angle Resistant Alignments Trail Alignment Angle to the Prevailing Slope

10. Sidehill-Constructed Trails Original land surface Post-construction surface outsloped 3-5% Original land surface Post-construction surface Berm develops over time Non-Sidehill Trails

11. Trail Profiles Upper Slope Upper Slope Mid-slope Lower Slope Trail Profiles with Different Topographic Positions and Trail Alignment Angles

12. Trail Grade Horse & Motorized Use Trails – Grades should not exceed 10% due to their higher potential for erosion. Gravel is also recommended unless soils are rocky.

13. Some Research Results: Grade vs. Alignment Angle Big South Fork

14. Construct Resistant Trails Tread design Rolling Grade Dip • Rolling grade dips or “grade-reversal” features should be designed into ALL new trails. They can be added to existing trail alignments but require substantial work. Advantages: • Sustainable drainage w/no maintenance • More effective than water bars, drainage dips, or out-sloping over the long term

15. Gravel Rocks to Slow erosion Steep grade and low alignment angle Maintain Trails to Reduce Impacts Relocations vs. Maintenance Nightmare

16. Maintain Trails to Reduce Impacts Maintenance Features: Stream Crossing Impacts • Remove water from treads well before stream crossings • Outsloped treads are better than water bars: sheet flow vs. concentrated flow • Armor steeper embankments with rock or gravel

17. Outsloped tread Water bars Maintain Trails to Reduce Impacts Tread Drainage

18. Manage Visitors to Reduce Impacts • Educate Visitors • Regulate Visitors

19. Visitor Regulations Regulate the Type, Amount, & Behavior of Visitation

20. Visitor EducationLeave No Trace: Travel & Camp on Durable Surfaces • Stay on formal trails when possible, walk single file in the center of the tread. Don’t create new trails.

21. Campsite Design & Management Strategies • Select resistant sites • Construct resistant sites • Provide facilities that reduce impacts • Maintain sites to contain impacts • Manage visitors to reduce impacts

22. Rock Sand/gravel Grasses Select Resistant Sites Organic litter

23. Topography Rockiness Dense Vegetation Select Resistant Sites Select campsites that resist expansion due to:

24. Cut and fill work on slopes Create raised tent pads Place fill in rocky terrain Construct Resistant Sites Use site engineering to contain site expansion in high use problem areas:

25. Campsite Signpost Ice-berg Rocks Campsite Construction – Flat Terrain

26. Campsite Construction – Sloping Terrain • Are these practices appropriate in Wilderness? • Only in certain zones? • Are they the “minimum tool” when other actions fail to resolve problems of site proliferation or expansion?

27. Campfire Rings Toilets Shelters Provide Facilities That Reduce Impacts

28. Improve Tent Pad Sites Reinforce Eroding Spots Restore Unnecessary Areas Maintain Sites To Contain Impacts

29. Manage Visitors to Reduce Impacts • Promote Leave No Trace Practices • Establish Regulations

30. National Park Service Bureau of Land Management U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service U.S. Forest Service Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics • The Center partners with federal land agencies, outdoor product manufacturers, retailers, outfitters, user groups. • A non-profit organization whose mission is to promote and inspire responsible outdoor recreation through education, research and partnerships.

31. Avoid Campfires - Use Stoves Use Durable Surfaces Promote Leave No Trace Practices

32. Use Established Sites in High-Use Areas Concentrate activities within disturbed areas Use Pristine Sites in Remote Areas Disperse activities Avoid permanent disturbance Promote Leave No Trace Practices

33. Prohibit Axes, Saws, or Campfires Designate Campsites Require Permits or Reservations Establish Regulations

34. Camping Management Strategies Four Standard Strategies: • Area Closure to Camping • At-Large (Unregulated) Camping • Dispersed Camping • Established/Designated Site Camping (Containment)

35. . Containment . b a Unregulated Camping 1 campsite 45 nights/yr Close 2 campsites Dispersal Impact is minimized by closing two campsites and tripling use on the third. Impact increases on third site from “a” to “b” but aggregate impact is reduced from (3 x a) to (1 x b). . . . 3 campsites each w/15 nights/yr 45 sites, each w/1 night/yr 15 45 Rationale for Dispersal & Containment StrategiesUse/Impact Relationship Total Change (%) Nights/Year (#)

36. Cultural sites Sensitive wildlife habitats R,T&E species Closures

37. Camping Management StrategiesAt-Large (Unregulated) Camping Camping is unregulated: visitors may camp in any location they choose. Advantages: Maximizes visitor freedom in site selection. Disadvantages: Jeopardizes visitor solitude and resource protection at higher use levels.

38. At-Large (Unregulated) Camping Problems: Poor site selection Social - too close to other sites Resource - fragile rather than resistant Campsite expansion Campsite proliferation

39. Total Dispersal Point Dispersal Lineal Dispersal Camping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping Visitors are instructed to camp on the most resistant surfaces available that show no obvious signs of previous camping use. Dispersal from popular areas may also be promoted to reduce problems with crowding or conflicts.

40. Camping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping Advantages: Provides greater visitor freedom in site selection and promotes solitude. When successful, avoids impact by dispersing use to a level that prevents formation of permanent campsites. Disadvantages: Visitors tend to resist dispersing very far. Considerable off-trail searching may be necessary to locate an appropriate site. Selecting, using, and renaturalizing a pristine site requires greater knowledge and effort.

41. Camping Management StrategiesDispersed Camping Why Resource Dispersal Is Often Ineffective: Park Environment - Limited flat land or resistant surfaces. Park Management - Restrictions on camping close to trails or water resources may prevent use of the most available flat land. Visitors not instructed to use only pristine sites or Leave No Trace camping practices. Insufficient visitor education. Park Visitors- Visitors may not want to disperse far from trails, water, or other groups. Visitors may lack or fail to apply LNT knowledge.

42. Designated Existing Sites Areas Camping Management StrategiesCamping Containment Visitors are encouraged or required to camp on existing sites or within designated areas. Sites or areas may be selected for their environmental resistance and/or to promote visitor solitude.

43. Camping Containment Problems: Loss of visitor freedom Availability of open campsites

44. Camping Management StrategiesCamping Containment Options: Established Sites-Visitors are required to use existing “established” campsites. Managers close and rehabilitate sites that fail to meet minimum criteria for environmental resistance and/or distance to trails, water, other sites, etc. Advantages:Retains some visitor freedom in site selection and ensures solitude. Minimizes area of disturbance and aggregate impact more than an “at-large” camping strategy. Disadvantages:Permits more sites and greater impact than under designated site camping. Visitors may create new sites or camp on closed sites.

45. Camping Management StrategiesCamping Containment Options: Designated Sites-Visitors are required to use only designated campsites. The minimum number of sites needed for a specified level of overnight visitation are selected, based on their environmental resistance and solitude potential. Sites that fail to meet criteria or are unnecessary are closed to use. Advantages:Minimizes resource impacts while maximizing visitor solitude. Disadvantages:Restricts freedom in campsite selection, sites will become highly altered.

46. Shenandoah National Park (New) Designated Existing campsites campsites Dispersal and closure within designated areas Camping Management StrategiesMulti-Strategy Examples

47. Camping Management StrategiesA Comparison

48. Carrying Capacity: The Art of Avoiding Undesirable Future Conditions The End