LEARNING

1. LEARNING

2. Key Knowledge • Behaviours not dependent on learning (reflex action, fixed pattern action and behaviours due to maturation) • Classical conditioning (Pavlov’s original experiments, conditioned stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned response, process of acquisition, extinction, stimulus, generalisation, stimulus discrimination and spontaneous revovery)

3. What is learning? • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of learning • Can you think of any examples?

4. What is learning? • Most human behaviour are learned, but some are innate (inborn), these are: • Reflex actions • Fixed pattern actions • Maturation

5. Reflex Actions • Kit Kat activity • Actions that are relatively simple and automatic and involuntary • They come directly from the NS - eg) pulling hand away from hot stove, salivation, blinking

6. Fixed Pattern Actions • When different members of the same species produce an identical response to the same specific stimuli • These actions are genetically programmed into the animal’s NS and appear to be unable to be changed

7. Examples of Fixed Patterns • Nesting • Salmon migrate thousands of ks through ocean waters to spawn (reproduce) in the rivers in which they were born! • Birds flying south for the winter • Honey bees perform ritualistic behaviours to indicate the location of a source of food

8. Maturation • Development related to physical growth, social, emotional and intellectual development • It occurs in a sequence and is largely predictable – determined by genes (+ a bit of environment) - eg) learning to walk, learning socially acceptable behaviour, learning how to read

9. How do we learn? • We learn in different ways and it differs for the individual and the situation • Reinforcement is a key to learning – it refers to any event that increases the chance that the response will occur again • A response is any identifiable behaviour

10. Conditioning • Conditioning is a form of learning that emphasises the relationship between a stimulus and a response - What is a stimulus? Can you think of examples from your everyday lives where a stimulus evokes a certain response

11. Conditioning... • Classical conditioning: also known as respondent conditioning where we learn by association • Operant conditioning: also known as instrumental conditioning where we learn by consequences • Observational learning: also known as modelling where we learn through observing

12. skinner box.mp4 pavlovs dogs.mp4 clockwork orange.mp4

13. Sniffy the Rat! • C:\Program Files\Sniffy Demo For Windows\SniffyDemo.exe

14. Token Economy • We will discuss this in more depth later in the AOS • However a token economy is a form of behaviour modification where an individual receives a token (reinforcement) for appropriate behaviour and these tokens can be collected and exchanged for real rewards

15. TASK • Define the following terms in relation to Classical Conditioning (pg 284-289) • Conditioned stimulus • Stimulus generalisation • Stimulus discrimination • Extinction • Spontaneous recovery

16. Classical Conditioning Respondent, Pavlovian or Associative Conditioning

17. Classical Conditioning • Also known as respondent or Pavlovian conditioning • Conditioning that occurs through repeated association between two or more stimuli • There are several terms we use to describe the events in classical conditioning

18. Terms used in Classical Conditioning • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) • Unconditioned response (CR) • Neural stimulus (NS) • Conditioned stimulus (CS) • Conditioned response (CR) • Extinction • Spontaneous recovery • Stimulus generalisation • Stimulus discrimination

19. Neural Stimulus • Before learning a neural stimulus (NS) will NOT evoke a response • After learning the neural stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS)

20. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) • Is a stimulus that is naturally capable of creating a response • EG: • Food • A loud sound • Cold weather • A loud sound • A puff of air on your eye • A hot stove

21. Unconditioned Response (UCR) • Is a naturally occurring (innate) response to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) • EG: • When you smell food you salivate (food is the UCS salivation is the UCR) • When it is cold you shiver (cold is the UCS shivering is the UCR)

22. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) • Is a stimulus that will evoke a response AFTER learning has taken place • EG: • In Pavlov’s experiment the bell becomes a CS which triggers salivation (CR) • You eat every time you go to the kitchen. Food is originally the UCS and feeling hungry is the UCR. In time the kitchen itself becomes the CS and feeling hungry becomes a CR

23. Conditioned Response (CR) • A response to a stimulus that has been learned • EG: • Salivating at the sound of the bell becomes a CR • You get bitten by a spider in your bed one night. The spider is the UCS, pain is the UCR, your bed becomes the CS and being scared of being bitten becomes the CR

24. NOTE • Often the UCR will become the CR but NOT always • For example with the spider. Pain was the original UCR but then fear of pain becomes the CR

25. Acquisition • The period of time it takes for a response or behaviour to be learned • To acquire behaviour a CS must be reinforced during training

26. Extinction • After conditioning has occurred, if the UCS is no longer followed by the CS, conditioning will gradually disappear • EG: • When Pavlov rang the bell (CS) but no longer presented the food (UCS), the dog eventually stopped salivating (CR) after hearing the bell (UCS)

27. Spontaneous Recovery • When the conditioned response (CR) reappears after a period of time following the conditioned stimulus (CS) spontaneous recovery has occurred • EG: • The next day the experimenter rings the bell (CS) and the salivation occurs (CR) after it was thought to be extinct

28. Stimulus Generalisation • After conditioning has occurred, other stimulus that appears to be the same (similar) to the conditioned stimulus (CS) may also trigger the conditioned response (CR) • EG: • Pavlov’s dog might salivate at the sound of a phone ringing or a door bell

29. Stimulus Discrimination • This happens when the person or animal responds ONLY to the conditioned stimulus (CS) and no other similar stimulus • EG: • Pavlov’s dog only salivates at the sounds of the bell

30. One Trial Learning With reference to taste aversion

31. Key Knowledge • One trial learning with reference to taste aversion

32. One-trial Learning • Classical conditioning where it only takes one pairing of a neural stimulus prior to unpleasant stimulus to create a lasting association between the two • Most often occurs with pain or food • Time lapse between NS and UCS could be hours – different to classical conditioning where it needs to be immediate

33. Taste Aversion • Sometimes called Garcia response (John Garcia first demonstrated this with animals in 1974) – pg 289 read its interesting • Type of one-trial learning • Association between stimuli (smell or taste) and unpleasant response (vomiting, nausea)

34. Trial and Error Learning With reference to Thorndike’s experiments

35. Key Knowledge • Trial and error learning, including Thorndike’s puzzle-box experiment

36. Trial and Error Learning • Thorndike studied animal intelligence – he placed hungry cat in box with salmon outside box just out of reach and cat had to work out how to press a lever to open the door (puzzle box experiment) • Trial and error learning occurs when an organism eliminates responses that do not achieve desired goals and continue to explore environment until they discover the response that gains the desired reward

37. Operant Conditioning Instrumental or Skinnerian Conditioning

38. Key Knowledge • Operant conditioning, including Skinner’s original experiments (the Skinner box) and processes of acquisition, extinction, stimulus generalisation, stimulus discrimination and spontaneous recovery

39. Operant Conditioning • Where we associate a response with a consequence • Behaviours or responses that are reinforced tend to be repeated (Thorndike called this the law of effect) • A response is followed by a reinforcer (food, praise, removal of unpleasant stimuli etc)

40. Conditioning Chamber • Most operant studies take place in a conditioning chamber (think back to the video on the Skinner box) • Hungry rat (or other animal) is placed in box and receives reinforcement (food) for behaviours such as grooming or pressing a lever (positive reinforcement) • Unpleasant stimuli such as an electric shock may also be removed after the response (negative reinforcement)

41. Elements of Operant Conditioning Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Punishment Response cost

42. Positive Reinforcement • When a pleasant or desirable event follows a response (action/behaviour) and then chances of the response occurring again are increased • EG: • You get $5 for doing the dishes • You get verbal praise for working hard in class • You get an A+ on an essay your worked really hard on

43. Negative Reinforcement • Occurs when an unpleasant stimulus is removed or reduced, increasing the chances of the response occurring again • EG: • You have a headache and take a panadol • Rat is given shock and shock is removed if it presses the level

44. Punishment • Any event following a response that will decrease the likelihood of the response occurring again • EG: • Being sent out of class for talking, talking will become less likely in the future • Your parents send you to your room without dinner for being naughty, you will be less likely to be naughty in the future

45. Response Cost • Another type of punishment (involved in punishment) • Reinforcement where a positive reinforcer is removed after a response • EG: • Parking tickets • Speeding fines • TV privileges

46. Videos • (Skinner box – operant conditioning) video02.mp4 • (Thorndike – trial and error learning – type of operant conditioning) video03.mp4

47. Timing of reinforcement • In operant conditioning, it is more effective when reinforcement directly follows the desired response (refer to graph on page 300) • If there is a delay in the reinforcement, learning is less likely to occur therefore the chance of the response occurring again will not be increased

48. Schedules of reinforcement • Refers to plans for determining which responses will be reinforced • Continuous reinforcement is when a reinforcer follows every correct response (not realistic under non-lab conditions) • Partial reinforcers do not follow every correct response (extinction is less likely to take place)

49. Patterns of partial reinforcement • Fixed ratio: number of responses must be made before reinforcement • EG: I give you a lollie for every 5 minutes you are quiet • Variable ratio: varied number of responses must be made before reinforcement • EG: playing a poker machine – you don’t know how many dollars you will have to put in to be rewarded

50. Patterns of partial reinforcement • Fixed interval: reinforcer given after response after a fixed amount of time • EG: pedestrian button – light will only go green after a fixed amount of time after you press it • Variable interval: reinforcer given after correct response after a varied amount of time • EG: fishing – you don’t know how long you will have to wait for the fish to bite