Development:

1. Development:

2. Development • Developmental psychology • the branch of psychology that studies the patterns of growth and change occurring throughout life

3. Nature and Nurture: The Enduring Developmental Issue • Environment • the influence of experience to which a child is exposed • Heredity • those influences based on genetic makeup of an individual that affect growth and development throughout life • Nature-Nurture Issue • the issue of the degree to which environment and heredity influence behavior

5. Specific Research Strategies • Cross-sectional research • people of different ages are compared at the same point in time • Longitudinal research • investigates behavior as subjects age • Cross-sequential research • examine different age groups over several points in time

6. The Start of Life: Conception and Beyond • The Basics of genetics: • Chromosomes • contain the basic hereditary information • Genes • the parts of the chromosomes through which genetic information is transmitted • DNA

7. The Earliest Stages of Development • Germinal Period • Zygote • the new cell formed by the product of fertilization • Embryonic Period • Embryo • a developed zygote that has a heart, a brain, and other organs

9. The Earliest Stages of Development • Critical Period • the first of several stages in prenatal development in which specific kinds of growth must occur if the individual is to develop normally • Fetal Period • fetus • a developing child, from eight weeks after conception until birth

10. The Earliest Stages of Development • Age of Viability • the point at which the fetus can survive if born prematurely

11. Genetic Influences on the Fetus • Phenylketonuria (PKU) • cannot produce a required enzyme • Sickle-cell anemia • abnormal shape of red blood cells • Tay-Sachs disease • body’s inability to break down fat • Down’s Syndrome • extra chromosome

12. Prenatal Environmental Influences • Mother’s nutrition and emotional state • Illness of mother • Mother’s use of drugs • Birth complications

14. Physical and Social Development • Neonate • Reflexes • unlearned, involuntary response that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli • rooting reflex • sucking reflex • gag reflex • startle reflex • Babinski reflex

15. Growth After Birth

16. Development of Social Behavior • Attachment • the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual • Measuring attachment • the Ainsworth strange situation • The father’s role

17. Parenting Styles and Social Development • Authoritarian parents • are rigid and punitive and value unquestioned obedience from their children • Permissive parents • give their children lax or inconsistent direction and, although warm, require little of them • Authoritative parents • are firm, set clear limits, reason with their children, and explain thinks to them

18. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development • Psychosocial development • development of individuals’ interactions and understanding of each other and of their knowledge and understanding of themselves as members of society

20. Adolescence: Becoming an Adult • Adolescence • the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood • Puberty • the period at which maturation of the sexual organs occurs, begins at about age 11 or 12 for girls and 13 or 14 for boys

21. Moral and Cognitive Development • Kohlberg’s theory of moral development • Preconventional morality • rewards and punishments • Conventional morality • moral problems as members of a society • Post conventional morality • moral principle broader that any particular society

22. Moral and Cognitive Development • Moral Development in Women • Gillian’s Stages of Moral Development • Stage 1 • orientation toward individual survival • Stage 2 • goodness as self-sacrifice • Stage 3 • morality of nonviolence

23. Adolescent Suicide

24. Early and Middle-Adulthood • The peak of health - 18 to 25 • Quantitative changes after 25 • Menopause • the point at which women stop menstruating and are no longer fertile

25. Social Development • Midlife transition • beginning around the age of 40, a period during which we come to the realization that life is finite • Midlife crisis • the realization that we have not accomplished in life what we had hoped to, leading to negative feelings

26. Marriage, Children, and Divorce • 60 percent of all first marriages end in divorce • In 1990, 28 percent of all family households had one parent, compared with 13 percent in 1970 • racial and ethnic groups have been particularly hard-hit by divorce

27. Marriage, Children, and Divorce

28. The Later Years of Life

29. The Later Years of Life • Physical changes in late adulthood • Genetic preprogramming theories of aging • theories that suggest there is a built-in time limit to the reproduction of human cells, and that after a certain time they are no longer able to divide

30. The Later Years of Life • Physical changes in late adulthood • Wear-and-tear theories of aging • theories that suggest that the mechanical functions of the body simply stop working efficiently • waste by-products of energy production eventually accumulate, and mistakes are made when cells reporoduce

31. The Later Years of Life • Cognitive changes • slower reaction time versus declining intelligence • effects of physical health and motivation on intelligence • declining fluid intelligence • improving crystallized intelligence

32. The Later Years of Life

33. The Later Years of Life • Memory changes in old age • episodic memory versus semantic and implicit memory • senility • a broad, imprecise term typically applied to older adults who experience progressive deterioration of mental abilities • Alzheimer’s disease

34. The Social World of Late Adulthood • Disengagement theory of aging • aging is a gradual withdrawal from the world on physical, psychological, and social levels • Activity theory of aging • the elderly who are most successful are those who maintain the interests and activities they had during middle age

35. Adjusting to Death • Denial • Anger • Bargaining • Depression • Acceptance

36. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development • Trust-versus-mistrust stage • birth to 18 months • Autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage • ages 18 months to 3 years • Initiative-versus-guilt stage • ages 3 to 6 years • Industry-versus-inferiority stage • ages 6 to 12 years

37. Cognitive Development • Cognitive development • the process by which a child’s understanding of the world changes as a function of age and experience

38. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years • child has little competence in representing the environment using images, language, or other symbols • Object permanence • the awareness that objects- and people- continue to exist even if they are out of sight

39. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Preoperational Stage: 2 to 7 years • language development • egocentric thought • child views the world entirely from his or her own perspective • principle of conservation • the knowledge that quantity is unrelated to the arrangement and physical appearance of objects

40. Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development • Concrete operational stage: 7 to 12 years • logical thought and a loss of egocentrism • Formal operational stage: 12 years to adulthood • abstract thought

41. Information-Processing Approaches • Information-processing • the way in which people take in, use, and store information • Metacognition • an awareness and understanding of one’s own cognitive processes

42. Vygotsky’s View of Cognitive Development • Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) • the level at which a child can almost, but not fully, comprehend or perform a task on his or her own