Language & Nationalism in Europe

1. Language & Nationalism in Europe Chapter 7 Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Luxembourg: The total coincidence of nations & speech communities?

2. Q: In what countries is German a majority language?

3. Q: In what countries is German a majority language? A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria?

4. Q: In what countries is German a majority language? A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria? A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian (Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken Q: What other countries use German?

5. Q: In what countries is German a majority language? A: Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein Q: What are the minor exceptions in Germany and Austria? A: Lusatia in E. Germany, where Lusatian (Sorbian) is spoken and Carinthia in S. Austria, where Slovene is spoken Q: What other countries use German? A: Switzerland & Luxembourg

6. Switzerland • German is a majority language only in the German area, which is the largest region, and is diglossic (Swiss-German/High German) • 4 national languages: German, French, Italian, Romansh • Romansh is a minority language even in its own region, where German predominates • Language does not play a major role in Swiss identity

7. Luxembourg • Diglossia: Majority spoken language is Luxembourgish, which is close to German; German is also used for formal purposes, although Luxembourgish does have a written standard • French is also used

8. The languages of the region • German has a complex of dialects, often mutually incomprehensible • Significant immigrant populations in the region include Turkish, Greek, Serbo-Croatian, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese • Border zone enclaves: Danish in Germany; Slovene, Croatian, and Hungarian in Austria -- all of these groups have a single standard language and receive support from their respective countries

9. The languages of the region, cont’d. • Sorbian has two written standard languages: Upper Sorbian (which is closest to Czech) and Lower Sorbian (which is closest to Polish) • Sorbian has been under uninterrupted German control since Middle Ages • Sorbs have received support from Czechs (less from Poles) and were protected under communism

10. The languages of the region, cont’d. • N. Frisian in Germany is related to Frisian in Netherlands, but suffers from dialectal fragmentation and have 4 rival written standards • Romansh has more than 6 rival standards (severe fragmentation) and is related to Ladin & Friulian in N. Italy • Both Frisian & Romansh suffer fragmentation and lack an external country to promote their interests

11. German • Most minority languages in contact with German are non-Germanic and clearly distinct; only Danish & N. Frisian are Germanic, but mutual comprehensibility with German is very low. • German has many dialects, often mutually incomprehensible • Dutch is closer to the contiguous dialects of German than many other German dialects • The identity of German cannot be established on the basis of purely linguistic criteria

12. German linguistic identity • Speakers of Luxembourgish, Swiss-German, & Low German feel standard German is separate, foreign • Luxembourg has its own version of a written standard, but Swiss-German does not • All German speakers consider their language to be “German” even though German dialects are more diverse than the separate languages of Scandinavia

13. German linguistic identity, cont’d. • Austrians see themselves as German, too, though separate Austrian identity develops since 19th c and especially post-WWII • There has never been a state uniting all German speakers • Kulturnation: nation united only by a common culture • Staatsnation: nation united by a state

14. German speakers constitute a Kulturnation -- but why?

15. German speakers constitute a Kulturnation -- but why? • “Given the high diversity of its language, and the group’s increasing cultural & political fragmentation, it is indeed surprising that it did not develop into a number of different ethnic groups speaking what would have been considered to be a number of different languages, which then with the modern development of a nation, would have become a number of different nations.”

16. Name that country! • Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?

17. The Netherlands • Only one area of continental W. Germanic speech became separate in both language and national identity -- what is it?

18. Other close relatives • Frisian -- strong influence from Dutch, German, and Danish; dialectal fragmentation; consider themselves separate from German • Switzerland -- Multilingual state does not use language as a unifying factor; Swiss-German also identify selves as Swiss; use of German is matter of convenience, not identity • Luxembourg -- These people consider their language distinct & have negative feelings toward Germany

19. Germany & Austria • 15th-17th c single standard language developed, including Germany & Austria • German Empire of 1871 excluded Austria • Never any serious attempt at a distinct Austrian language • No desire for political unification with Germany • But Austrians DO see a strong link between their identity as native speakers of German & Austrian identity

20. German in Germany • 1871-1933 German Empire & Wiemar Republic fostered loyalty to state & focused attention on language as a unifying factor; promoted linguistic purism • 1933-1945 Nazi regime & first state to politically unify all Germans • Post-WWII divided Germany

21. German in Germany • Immigration of ethnic Germans from E. Europe & former USSR creates tensions with citizens who see identity in terms of language • GDR failed to build loyalty to state rather than culture, and political division did not result in linguistic division • Overall, there is a strong link between German language and national identity