Methods of Qualitative Research: Observation

1. Methods of Qualitative Research:Observation • Researcher must be as unobtrusive as possible: Participant observation Advantages of participant observation: - blends with natural activity - gives researcher access to same places, people and events as the subjects under study - gives access to documents relevant to the role, including confidential reports and records - can use tape-recorders, cameras and video cameras - provides first hand experience of the subjects- thus better understanding. - makes worthwhile contribution to the life of the institution. Disadvantages: -if you are a member of the group, difficult to make the situation “strange” - danger of “going native” – hard to achieve “analytic distance” - more demands on the researcher: a mass of confusing and intricate data - possibility of conflict of roles: researcher vs. participant. Prefer non-participant observation??

2. Non-participant observation • Researcher has only one role: as a researcher; just observes from back of the class; playground: the “Fly in the wall technique”. The task is to capture as much of the detail and interaction as possible, through making notes, tape recording, photography, filming Typically, the day’s research is followed by an evening’s writing up of the field notes.

3. Systematic observation • This involves using an observation schedule whereby the teacher and/or pupil behaviour is coded according to certain predetermined categories at regular intervals • E.g. Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC) – though the use of this has all the advantages of a quantitative / positivist piece of research like: • Free of observer bias; strong reliability; generalisability; very precise; provides a structure for the research • BUT • There is a measure of unreliability: Qualitative material might be misrepresented through the use of measurement techniques. • Much of the interaction is missed. • It is not good for generating fresh insights. • Because of predetermined categories, it allows only partial description. • It ignores process, flux, development and change

4. Interviews • A lot of qualitative material comes from talking to people • Two conditions are necessary: • 1. A researcher has to develop empathy with interviewees and win their confidence • 2. Researcher has to be unobtrusive, in order not to impose one’s own influence on the interviewees. • Unstructured interviews: open situation , greater flexibility and freedom • Semi-structured interviews : with a set of broad guidelines for interview • Structured interviews: content and procedures are organised in advance. • Person-to-person interview • group interviews • Focus group interviews

5. Care is needed to avoid leading questions or suggesting outcomes • Attention has to be paid to where the interview is held • Arrangement of seating • How the researcher dresses • Manner of approach • Rapport has to be established first • Researcher engages in “active listening” so that interviewee feels that close attention is paid to what they say. • Interviews can be tape recorded – but get permission first!! • Look at the guidelines for conduct of Interviews in the any of the books on Qualitative Research Methodologies

6. Sampling • Representative sampling is desirable : This covers places, times and persons. • Formal or informal ambience: • behaviour differs in different situations • Beginning of the term; end of the term; after exam results opinions may vary!! • You can do an opportunity sample also known as convenience sampling (where access is offered) or a snowball sample (sample is developed through personal contact and recommendation) • Random sampling – in a group everyone has an equal chance of being selected. • Purposive sampling: qualitative research: handpick the cases to be included on the basis of your judgement – a group of teachers who have in-depth knowledge about certain issues. Gatekeepers • Stratified sampling: divide the population into homogenous groups, then do a random sampling. • Cluster sampling: all subjects in a group. • Opportunity sampling

7. Written materials • Official Documents: • Registers, timetables, minutes of meetings, lesson plans, notes, school handbooks, report cards, school records, files, notices, textbooks, exercise books, punishment books, examination papers, photographs . • They have to be contextualised. A Researcher cannot take these documents at face value. But must find out how they were constructed and how they are used and interpreted. • Personal documents: diaries, pupils’ rough books, personal letters, grafitti, creative writing exercises, notes

8. Triangulation • The use of several methods to explore an issue increases the chances of accuracy and depth. • The use of several methods to explore an issue increases the chances of depth and accuracy • E.g. School policy on new intake of students • Method: interview the headmaster; look at documents relating to the policy; look at PTA meetings on the subject; views of parents of some of the students; views of students; observation of policy in progress. • One of the commonest forms of triangulation is to combine interviews with observation. Observation will test and fill out accounts given in interviews and vice versa

9. Ethics: • The tension between the public’s right to know and the subject’s right to privacy. • Negotiate with subjects and build up a culture of trust; protect their identities. • Obtain permission to view and film activities, record interviews and to use documents owned by others • In some cases, respondent validation of information to used can be seen to have an ethical dimension.

10. Other Methodologies • Portfolios: • Pamela Winsor, Richard Butt & Holly Reeves (1999) “Portraying Professional Development in Preservice Teacher Education: can portfolios do the job?” in Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice. Vol. 5, No. 1 March 1999 • Journals: • John Bain, Roy Ballantyne, Jan Packer & Colleen Mills (1999) “Using Journal Writing to Enhance Student Teachers’ Reflectivity During Field Experience Placements” in ibid. • Case Study: • Fehmi Sendan & Jon Roberts (1998) Orhan: a case study in the development of a student teacher’s personal theory.” in Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice. Vol 4, No. 2, Oct. 1998. • Action Research: • Larry Bencze & Derek Hodson (1998) “Coping with uncertainty in Elementary School Science: a case study in collaborative action research .” in Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice. Vol. 4, No. 1, March 1998