Food Insecurity and Sustainable Food Production

The sector of the economy that seems likely to unravel first is food. Eroding soils, deteriorating rangelands, collapsing fisheries, falling water tables, and rising temperatures are converging to make it difficult to expand food production fast enough to keep up with the demand. LESTER R. BROWN

Soil (12) Why is soil so important? It’s simple food. Feeding a growing human population: Many of the poor suffer health problems from chronic lack of food and poor nutrition, while many people in developed countries have health problems from eating too much food. A proper diet requires 2500 calories a day for males and 2000 calories for females. It also requires a balanced intake of proteins (30%), carbohydrates(60%) and fats(10%). People are considered undernourished with fewer than 2000 calories per day. Food security means that every person gets enough nutritious food to live an active and healthy life. Food insecurity (1 in 6 people) living with chronic hunger and poor nutrition. The root of which is poverty.

Hunger and Malnutrition Although there is enough food produced in the world many people go hungry. Sustainability is the ability to meet the needs of the present human population without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs. The greatest obstacles to providing enough food for everyone are Poverty Political upheaval , corruption, war which interfere with food distribution and transportation systems. Stored food spoils and many people waste food. The harmful environmental effects of food production. In terms of famine and malnutrition, about 11 million children die from starvation each year and 850 million people are considered malnourished (lack of protein in the diet). Chronic undernourishment results in mental retardation, stunted growth, susceptibility to disease, lower life expectancy and weakness. Over nutrition: 1 billion people have health problems because of this. Lowers life expectancy, greater susceptibility to disease and illness and lower life quality.

Food Production Food production has dramatically increased using a three system approach (Raising K) • Croplands produce mostly grains. (Grains are small, hard, dry seeds. Corn is considered a grain when harvested late) They supply 77% of the world’s food and use 11% of the land. • Rangelands, pastures and feedlots produce meat which supply 16% of the world’s food and use 26% of the land. About 69% of the grain grown in the United States is used to feed animals. • Ocean fisheries and aquaculture supply about 7% of the world’s food.

Feeding a Growing Population People must consume 2,200 calories of food per day to live an active healthy life Area of food production unevenly distributed among population. Only about 14 of the 50,000 known plant species are commercially grown for human consumption and amount to 90% of the world’s food calories. Of the 14 wheat, corn and rice supply about 50% the human caloric intake. They also supply the world with 42% of their protein. Because of poverty, many people cannot afford meat and must get their protein from grains Golden rice was genetically engineered to contain beta-carotene that the body can turn into vitamin A. Using corn as a fuel is driving up the price leading to more hunger.

Agriculture The number of people the world can support depends mostly on their per capita consumption of grain and meat and how many children couples have. • Research has shown that those living very low on the food chain or very high on the food chain do not live as long as those that live somewhere in between.

Growing Crops There are two basic ways that agriculture is accomplished: 1. Industrialized crop production (Mostly done in developed countries) 2. Traditional subsistence production (Mostly done in developing countries) Industrialized agriculture (high input-monocultures ) uses: 1. Heavy equipment that burn fossil fuels 2. Large financial investments (become corporate- Monsanto) 3. Large water use 4. Large use of inorganic fertilizer (monocultures deplete soil nutrients) 5. Large use of pesticides Why grow crops this way? To produce high yield monocultures. Yield-The amount of food produced per unit of land. Plantation agriculture: is industrialized agriculture used in tropical developing countries to grow cash crops. (bananas, coffee, soybeans, sugar cane and palm oil). It brings money to countries that need it but leads to : 1. Slash and burn techniques 2. loss of biodiversity as rainforests are destroyed 3. Larger inputs of inorganic fertilizers due to very low nutrients in rainforest soil 4. Soils are depleted quickly and more forest is needed every 4 years to continue

Traditional Subsistence Agriculture Traditional agriculture (low input) is practiced by 2.7 billion people in developing countries. It involves mainly human labor and draft animals to grow enough food for the family with a little left over to sell or store. In contrast to high input monocultures grown in industrialized agriculture, traditional agriculture is based on polyculture: growing many different crops on the same plot of land. Benefits of polyculture involve: Slower depletion of soil nutrients Reduces chance of losing most or all of the year’s food supply to pests, bad weather etc. Slash and burn agriculture is also used to clear land for polyculture agriculture. After the soil is depleted of nutrients it takes 10-30 years to become fertile again.

The Birth of Industrialized Crop Production: The Green Revolution The Green Revolution (High impact Agriculture) Green revolution is a popular term for the technologically advanced agricultural practices that increased crop yield after WWII. It involved three steps: 1. The introduction of scientifically bred monocultures of grain (Rice, wheat and corn) that with adequate fertilizer and water, can greatly increase crop yields. 2. Large use of inorganic fertilizers, water and pesticides 3. Multiple cropping is growing more than one kind of crop in the same area. Most common form is one crop is started after the growing season for the previous crop has ended. • Since 1950, high-input agriculture has produced more crops per unit of land. • In 1967, fast growing dwarf varieties of rice and wheat were developed for tropics and subtropics. Lack of water, high costs for small farmers, and physical limits to increasing crop yields hinder expansion of the green revolution.

Since 1978 the amount of irrigated land per person has declined due to: • Depletion of underground water supplies. • Inefficient irrigation methods. • Salt build-up and cost of irrigating crops.

Genetically Modified Food • Artificial selection has been used for centuries to develop genetically improved varieties of crops without any genetic modification. It is a slow process but, crosses with older strains can improve the health of the crops. Genetic Engineering (faster): isolation of a gene from one source (plant, bacteria) for a desired trait (insect resistance), make copies of gene, then place those genes in another plant. Producing a GMF or GMO. EXAMPLE: Tomatoes Ethylene production (gas produced which makes them ripen quickly) grocers spray fruit with ethylene to start ripening process STRATEGY: isolate gene responsible for ethylene GE tomato (Endless Summer) does not ripen until it gets to the store: longer shelf-life

Trade-Offs Genetically Modified Crops and Foods Projected Advantages Projected Disadvantages Need less fertilizer Irreversible and unpredictable genetic and ecological effects Need less water Harmful toxins in food from possible plant cell mutations More resistant to insects, disease, frost, and drought New allergens in food Grow faster Lower nutrition Can grow in slightly salty soils Increased development of pesticide-resistant insects and plant diseases Less spoilage Better flavor Can create herbicide-resistant weeds Need less pesticides Tolerate higher levels of herbicides Can harm beneficial insects Higher yields Lower genetic diversity

Producing More Meat About half of the world’s meat is produced by livestock grazing on grass in unfenced rangelands and fenced in pastures. The other half is produced under factory-like conditions (feedlots), densely packed livestock are fed grain or fish meal. Takes about 16 pounds of grain to produce 1 pound of edible meat. 20% of the world’s richest countries eat 80% of the meat. Eat the grain directly would see a 20 fold increase in the calories available. Eating more chicken and farm-raised fish and less beef and pork reduces harmful environmental impacts of meat production and frees up grain products to feed the world’s population. Eating lower on the food chain (plant products) frees up even more food resources.

Trade-Offs Animal Feedlots Advantages Disadvantages Increased meat production Need large inputs of grain, fish meal, water, and fossil fuels Higher profits Concentrate animal wastes that can pollute water Less land use Reduced overgrazing Reduced soil erosion Antibiotics can increase genetic resistance to microbes in humans Help protect biodiversity

Trade-Offs Aquaculture Aquaculture Advantages Disadvantages Raising large numbers of fish and shellfish in ponds and cages is world’s fastest growing type of food production. Fish farming involves cultivating fish in a controlled environment and harvesting them in captivity. High efficiency Needs large inputs of land, feed, and water High yield in small volume of water Large waste output destroy quality of water Destroys mangrove forests and estuaries Can reduce overharvesting of conventional fisheries Uses grain to feed some species Low fuel use Dense populations vulnerable to disease and parasites (loss of genetic diversity) High profits Profits not tied to price of oil Tanks too contaminated to use after about 5 years Labeled in the stores as farmed raised verses wild caught.

Solutions More Sustainable Aquaculture • Use less fishmeal feed to reduce depletion of other fish • Improve management of aquaculture wastes • Reduce escape of aquaculture species into the wild they can destroy the gene pool of native species • Restrict location of fish farms to reduce loss of mangrove forests and estuaries • Farm some aquaculture species in deeply submerged cages to protect them from wave action and predators and allow dilution of wastes into the ocean • Certify sustainable forms of aquaculture

Food Production: Environmental Impacts Modern food production has a greater harmful environmental impact than any other human activity with growing food (agriculture) leading the way. Loss of a variety of genetically different crop and livestock strains might limit raw material needed for future green and gene revolutions. In the U.S., 97% of the food plant varieties available in the 1940 no longer exist in large quantities. Industrialized agriculture uses about 17% of all commercial energy in the U.S. and food travels an average 2,400 kilometers from farm to plate.

NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION Food Production Biodiversity Loss Soil Water Air Pollution Human Health Loss and degradation of grasslands, forests, and wetlands Erosion Water waste Greenhouse gas emissions (CO2) from fossil fuel use Nitrates in drinking water (blue baby) Aquifer depletion Loss of fertility Increased runoff, sediment pollution, and flooding from cleared land Greenhouse gas emissions (N2O) from use of inorganic fertilizers Pesticide residues in drinking water, food, and air Salinization Fish kills from pesticide runoff Waterlogging Contamination of drinking and swimming water from livestock wastes Pollution from pesticides and fertilizers Greenhouse gas emissions of methane (CH4) by cattle (mostly belching) Desertification Killing wild predators to protect livestock Algal blooms and fish kills in lakes and rivers caused by runoff of fertilizers and agricultural wastes Loss of genetic diversity of wild crop strains replaced by monoculture strains Bacterial contamination of meat Other air pollutants from fossil fuel use and pesticide sprays

Soil Degradation: Erosion Erosion is the movement of soil components, especially surface litter and topsoil, from one place to another and is a serious issue facing modern farming. No soil = no crops. Erosion lowers the fertility of the soil and can overload nearby bodies of water with sediment. 6.4 billion tons of soils are eroded from the U.S. each year; this would fill 320 million average-sized dump trucks that, if parked end-to-end, would extend to the moon and ¾ of the way back! Erosion is caused by uncovered and unanchored soils that are exposed to wind and water. Wind erosion: 1. Saltation: one particle hitting another and being blown across the surface of the soil. 2. Suspension(SPM): airborne soil. Soil can travel hundreds of miles in the right conditions. 3. Surface Creep: mountains/sand dunes; surface creeping slowly across. Landslides are an example of a very fast surface creep. 4. Aeolian soils are sand sized particles transported by wind.

Water Erosion 1. Mass slippage: (like in California) where it is very wet and large amounts of soil slip away in large chunks (mud slides). Leaves behind a hillside scar. 2. Splash erosion: raindrops hit soil & remove it 3. Sheet erosion: small layer of soil is removed from entire area Because the topsoil disappears evenly, sheet erosion may not be noticeable until too much damage has been done. 4. Gully erosion: water converges into small streams and takes with it large amounts of soil Rill: concentrated flow across the surface of soil. Leaves rivets (micro channels).

Human Impact on Erosion Farming, logging, construction, overgrazing by livestock, off-road vehicles, deliberate burning of vegetation etc. destroys plant cover and leaves soil vulnerable to erosion. This destroys in a few decades what nature took hundreds to thousands of years to produce.

Soil is eroding faster than it is forming on more than one-third of the world’s cropland.

Desertification: Degrading Dry lands Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry land region becomes increasingly arid (productivity falls by 10%), typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as climate change and human activities. Australia is one of the hardest hit areas in the world.

About one-third of the world’s land has lost some of its productivity because of drought and human activities that reduce or degrade topsoil.

Repeated Irrigation has Consequences Excessive salts in soil may decrease productivity by: 1. Inhibit water uptake by plants 2. Draw water out of plants through osmosis 3. Make plants less resistant to disease (waterlogging also) 4. Cause yellowing of the leaves reducing photosynthesis (waterlogging also)

Solutions Soil Salinization Prevention Cleanup Reduce irrigation or use drip irrigation to use less water and lower influx of salt. Flush soil (expensive and wastes water) Stop growing crops for 2–5 years until the salt has been flushed away Irrigate with water that has a low salt content Switch to salt-tolerant crops (such as barley, cotton, sugarbeet) Install underground drainage systems that will prevent water from pooling and evaporating (expensive)

Further Impacts of Agriculture 1. Habitat destruction to build farms and feedlots reduce biodiversity. Herbivores that feed on crops and carnivores that feed on livestock may be displaced or killed (Yellowstone/Wolves) 2. Water pollution: Sediment pollution from erosion, Cultural eutrophication from fertilizer runoff (excess phosphates and nitrates causing blooms) and pesticide pollution. 3. Nutrient depletion: Monocultures deplete soil of vital nutrients and must be replaced artificially Plants need : Macronutrients (Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium) and micronutrients in small amounts (Selenium, Zinc and Iron). Excessive amounts of zinc, copper and nitrogen can be toxic to plants. • Fertilizers can help restore soil nutrients in turn restoring soil fertility. • A. Organic fertilizers: from plant and animal (fresh manure, or compost) materials. • B.Commercial inorganic fertilizers: Active ingredients contain nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium and other trace nutrients • Benefits – compositions are known; they are soluble and immediately available to the plant • Costs – quickly leach away; this pollutes the water; doesn’t help the water holding capacity of the soil like organic fertilizers do.

Reducing Soil Degradation Keep soils covered with plants. In undisturbed ecosystems, the roots of plants help anchor the soil, and usually soil is not lost faster then it forms. Reduce deforestation, overgrazing and keep farmlands planted. Sustainable agriculture through planting and irrigation techniques can reduce soil degradation and increase soil conservation by protecting soil from wind and water Producing food more sustainably through soil and water conservation: 1. Building shelterbelts or windbreaks: can reduce wind erosion. Long rows of trees are planted to partially block the wind. They can also help retain soil moisture, supply some wood for fuel, and provide habitats for birds.

2. Terracing: converting steeply sloped land into a series of broad nearly level terraces. 3. Contour planting: On ground with a significant slope grow crops that are in rows across the slope so one row can act as a dam to the previous. 4. Strip cropping: involves planting rows of crops with alternating strips of a cover crop that completely covers the soil. (corn or cotton with legumes, rye or alfalfa) 5. Alley cropping or agroforestry: trees planted in strips; crops grown between trees 6. No-till farming: Eliminate the use of machines to till or turn over the soil.

7. Irrigation techniques: Brings water to agricultural crops uses about 60% of the world’s freshwater supplies Center pivot (efficiency 80% with low-pressure sprinkler and 90–95% with LEPA sprinkler) Drip irrigation (efficiency 90–95%) Water usually pumped from underground and sprayed from mobile boom with sprinklers. Requires machinery. Gravity flow (efficiency 60% and 80% with surge valves) Above- or below-ground pipes or tubes deliver water to individual plant roots. The most effective way to conserve water. Water usually comes from an aqueduct system or a nearby river. Cheap and easy. Gravity flow was invented to simulate natural flood plains. When basin flood crops get watered. The flood water brings nutrients with it causing soils to be very fertile. This is why flood valleys have always been good for agriculture and many societies where established near them. (Mesopotamia an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers)

Soil Soil is a renewable resource as it is slowly renewed (erosion) resource that provides most of the nutrients needed for plant growth and also helps purify water. • Soil formation begins when bedrock is broken down by physical, chemical and biological processes called weathering. To form 2.5 cm (1 in.) it may take from 200-1000 years. Physical Weathering (wind, water, ice) Chemical and biological weathering: A plant’s roots or animal cells undergo cell respiration and the CO2 produced diffuses into soil, reacts with H2O & forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). This eats parts of the rock away. Decomposition enriches the soil (like making it new) by breaking down dead organisms and returning some of their nutrients to the soil. But, in the tropical rainforests, all of the nutrients are caught in the trees and when cut down & burned the soil cannot get the nutrients back.

Soil Ecology Soil: A thin layer on top of Earth’s crust. A natural resource that affects ecosystems holds nutrients & water for organisms filters and cleans water as it flows through affect the chemistry of water Soil is affected by agents such as weather, wind, water and organisms. Composition of typical soil:

Importance of Soil 1. Organisms, mainly microorganisms, inhabit the soil & depend on it for shelter, food & water. 2. Plants anchor themselves into the soil, and get their nutrients and water. Terrestrial plants could not survive without soil, therefore, humans could not exist without soil either. Mature soils, or soils that have developed over a long time are arranged in a series of horizontal layers called soil horizons

O HORIZON (surface litter or organic layer) A HORIZON (topsoil) B HORIZON (subsoil) C HORIZON (weathered parent material) R HORIZON (bedrock-parent material) Soil Horizons -leaves & partially decomposed organic debris -Thick in deciduous forest very thin in desert & tundra Plant roots -Organic matter decomposed plants and animals (humus), living organisms, inorganic minerals -Has a granular texture and begins to lose nutrients due to plants using them and to deeper layers by leaching referred to as eluviation. -thick in grasslands Leeched out -light-yellowish in color because it accumulates iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds, a process referred to as illuviation. -Can have nutrients in areas where rainwater leeched nutrients from topsoil but has very little humus. Deposited in -Partially broken-down inorganic materials like rocks (broken bedrock). -Most roots do not go down this deep

Layers in Mature Soils Infiltration: the downward movement of water through soil. Leaching: dissolving of minerals and organic matter in upper layers carrying them to lower layers. The smaller the particles are the more leaching will occur. The surface area to volume ratio is high for small molecules allowing them to move easily. The soil type determines the degree of infiltration and leaching. E HORIZON (zone of leaching) -Dissolved and suspended materials move downward “E”, being short for eluviated, is most commonly used to label a horizon that has been significantly leached of its mineral and/or organic content, leaving a pale layer largely composed of silicates These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons.

Mosaic of closely packed pebbles, boulders Weak humus-mineral mixture Alkaline, dark, and rich in humus Dry, brown to reddish-brown with variable accumulations of clay, calcium and carbonate, and soluble salts Clay, calcium compounds Desert Soil (hot, dry climate) Grassland Soil (semiarid climate)

Low in nutrient, most nutrients are stored in the vegetation Low in nutrients, decomposition of leaf litter is slow (cold) Forest litter leaf mold Acidic light-colored humus Humus-mineral mixture Light, grayish-brown, silt loam Iron and aluminum compounds mixed with clay Dark brown firm clay Deciduous Forest Soil (humid, mild climate) Tropical Rain Forest Soil (humid, tropical climate)

Low in nutrients due to leaching by rain water. Acid litter and humus Light-colored and acidic due to decomposition of needles. Humus and iron and aluminum compounds Coniferous Forest Soil (humid, cold climate)

Soil Components Best for growing crops

Soil Properties Texture: The percentages (by weight) of different sized particles of sand, silt and clay that it contains give soil different textures. To tell the difference in soil, take the soil, moisten it, and rub it between your fingers and thumb. Gritty -has a lot of sand Sticky- high clay content and you should be able to roll it into a clump Silt- smooth Particle Size • >2mm in diameter = gravel/stones (not actually considered soil because it doesn’t have direct value to plants. • 0.05 to 2mm = sand (the largest soil particles) can be seen easily with the eye. • 0.002 to 0.05mm = silt – about the size of flour and barely visible with the eye. • <.002mm = clay (has the greatest surface value) – only seen under and electronic microscope.

Soil Properties Continued Soils vary in the size of the particles they contain, the amount of space between these particles, and how rapidly water flows through them. This determines a soils ability to hold water. Permeability: The rate at which water and air moves from upper to lower soil layers. Water cannot be used by plants if it cannot infiltrate the soil. Porosity: A measure of the volume of soil and the average distances between the spaces. This affects the soil’s ability to absorb and hold water. If soil cannot retain water within reach of plant roots, crops will need frequent rains or irrigation. Aeration: The ability of oxygen to infiltrate the soil. Oxygen in needed by plant roots. Soil organisms need it for respiration.

Soil Chemical Properties The pH of most soils ranges from 4.0 to 8.0 most plants grow best in neutral soil. As soil pH decrease porosity, aeration and nutrient holding capacity drop with it. But, the soil of the Pygmy Forest in California is extremely acidic (2.8-3.9) and in Death Valley, California, it is very basic (10.5). Plants are affected by pH because of the solubility of nutrient minerals. Soils with higher pH are more capable of absorbing cations (K+) preventing them from leaching out of the soil. Nitrogen (N): plant fertilizer component needed for growth and survival Phosphorus (P): plant fertilizer component needed for growth and survival Potash (K): common name for mined and manufactured salt compounds that contains potassium oxides The name derives from "pot ash", which refers to plant ashes soaked in water in a pot, can be used as fertilizer.

Growing and Using food Sources More Efficiently • People in urban areas could save money by growing more of their food. • Urban gardens provide about 15% of the world’s food supply. One third of the food produced worldwide is wasted, costing the global economy around $US750 billion a year, a new report by the UN food agency says. In the United States we waste up to 40% of our food at a cost of 1 billion dollars a year just to dispose of the trash. In addition we can increase food security by slowing populations growth, sharply reducing poverty, and slowing environmental degradation of the world’s soils and croplands.

More Sustainable Agriculture: Organic Farming

Reducing the Amount of Land Needed for Agriculture Increase crop yield by: A. Develop crops through GM techniques that can be grow closer together, are more resistant to pests and weather extremes. B. Institution of crop rotation to improve soil fertility. C. Use of polycultivation allowing multiple crops to be grown on the same plot of land during different seasons. D. Use of more effective pesticides and fertilizers. 2. Decreasing the demand for agricultural land by: A. Eating lower on the food chain reduces the amount of land needed to raise livestock. B. Switching from cotton to hemp for textiles would provide more material per acre. C. Switching to aquaculture D. Preventing food spoilage and wastage.

Case Studies and Legislation The Dust Bowl, of the 1930’s in Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, was a period of severe dust storms that greatly damaged the ecology and agriculture of the US and Canadian prairies severe drought, plowing and uncovered land caused the phenomenon. During the drought of the 1930s, the unanchored soil turned to dust, which the prevailing winds blew away in huge clouds that sometimes blackened the sky. These choking billows of dust – named "black blizzards" or "black rollers" – traveled cross country, reaching as far as such East Coast cities as New York City and Washington, D.C. The Dust Bowl led to the Soil Conservation(Erosion) Act of 1935 in an attempt to address farm erosion problems by bringing within its policy and purposes, the improvements and preservation of national soil resources. Soil erodes faster than it forms on most U.S. cropland, but since 1985, has been cut by about 40%. 1985 Food Security Act (Farm Act): farmers receive a subsidy for taking highly erodible land out of production and replanting it with soil saving plants for 10-15 years.

Food Insecurity and Sustainable Food Production