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Loose Ends

Loose Ends . Endocrine ch45 Reproduction CH46 Development CH 47 And how muscles contract. Overview: The Body’s Long-Distance Regulators. Animal hormones are chemical signals that are secreted into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body

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Loose Ends

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  1. Loose Ends Endocrine ch45 Reproduction CH46 Development CH 47 And how muscles contract

  2. Overview: The Body’s Long-Distance Regulators • Animal hormones are chemical signals that are secreted into the circulatory system and communicate regulatory messages within the body • Hormones reach all parts of the body, but only target cells are equipped to respond • Insect metamorphosis is regulated by hormones

  3. Two systems coordinate communication throughout the body: the endocrine system and the nervous system • The endocrine system secretes hormones that coordinate slower but longer-acting responses including reproduction, development, energy metabolism, growth, and behavior • The nervous system conveys high-speed electrical signals along specialized cells called neurons; these signals regulate other cells

  4. Types of Secreted Signaling Molecules • Secreted chemical signals include • Hormones • Local regulators • Neurotransmitters • Neurohormones • Pheromones

  5. Exocrine glands have ducts and secrete substances onto body surfaces or into body cavities (for example, tear ducts)

  6. Local Regulators • Local regulators are chemical signals that travel over short distances by diffusion • Local regulators help regulate blood pressure, nervous system function, and reproduction • Local regulators are divided into two types • Paracrine signals act on cells near the secreting cell • Autocrine signals act on the secreting cell itself

  7. Fig. 45-2a Blood vessel Response (a) Endocrine signaling Response (b)Paracrine signaling Response (c) Autocrine signaling

  8. Neurotransmitters and Neurohormones • Neurons (nerve cells) contact target cells at synapses • At synapses, neurons often secrete chemical signals called neurotransmitters that diffuse a short distance to bind to receptors on the target cell • Neurotransmitters play a role in sensation, memory, cognition, and movement

  9. Fig. 45-2b Synapse Neuron Response (d) Synaptic signaling Neurosecretory cell Blood vessel Response (e) Neuroendocrine signaling

  10. Neurohormones are a class of hormones that originate from neurons in the brain and diffuse through the bloodstream • Pheromones are chemical signals that are released from the body and used to communicate with other individuals in the species • Pheromones mark trails to food sources, warn of predators, and attract potential mates

  11. Fig. 45-3 Water-soluble Lipid-soluble 0.8 nm Polypeptide: Insulin Steroid: Cortisol Amine: Epinephrine Amine: Thyroxine

  12. Signaling by any of these hormones involves three key events: • Reception • Signal transduction • Response

  13. Fig. 45-5-1 Fat-soluble hormone Water- soluble hormone Transport protein Signal receptor TARGET CELL Signal receptor NUCLEUS (a) (b)

  14. Fig. 45-5-2 Fat-soluble hormone Water- soluble hormone Transport protein Signal receptor TARGET CELL OR Signal receptor Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation Cytoplasmic response Gene regulation NUCLEUS (a) (b)

  15. Fig. 45-10 Major endocrine glands: Hypothalamus Pineal gland Pituitary gland Organs containing endocrine cells: Thyroid gland Thymus Parathyroid glands Heart Liver Adrenal glands Stomach Pancreas Kidney Testes Small intestine Kidney Ovaries

  16. Fig. 45-11 Pathway Example – Stimulus Low pH in duodenum S cells of duodenum secrete secretin ( ) Endocrine cell Negative feedback Blood vessel Target cells Pancreas Bicarbonate release Response

  17. Insulin and Glucagon: Control of Blood Glucose • Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that help maintain glucose homeostasis • The pancreas has clusters of endocrine cells called islets of Langerhans with alpha cells that produce glucagon and beta cells that produce insulin

  18. Fig. 45-12-5 Body cells take up more glucose. Insulin Beta cells of pancreas release insulin into the blood. Liver takes up glucose and stores it as glycogen. STIMULUS: Blood glucose level rises. Blood glucose level declines. Homeostasis: Blood glucose level (about 90 mg/100 mL) STIMULUS: Blood glucose level falls. Blood glucose level rises. Alpha cells of pancreas release glucagon. Liverbreaks downglycogen andreleases glucose. Glucagon

  19. Target Tissues for Insulin and Glucagon • Insulin reduces blood glucose levels by • Promoting the cellular uptake of glucose • Slowing glycogen breakdown in the liver • Promoting fat storage • Glucagon increases blood glucose levels by • Stimulating conversion of glycogen to glucose in the liver • Stimulating breakdown of fat and protein into glucose

  20. Type I diabetes mellitus (insulin-dependent) is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys pancreatic beta cells • Type II diabetes mellitus (non-insulin-dependent) involves insulin deficiency or reduced response of target cells due to change in insulin receptors

  21. Concept 45.3: The endocrine and nervous systems act individually and together in regulating animal physiology • Signals from the nervous system initiate and regulate endocrine signals

  22. Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems in Invertebrates • In insects, molting and development are controlled by a combination of hormones: • A brain hormone stimulates release of ecdysone from the prothoracic glands • Juvenile hormone promotes retention of larval characteristics • Ecdysone promotes molting (in the presence of juvenile hormone) and development (in the absence of juvenile hormone) of adult characteristics

  23. Fig. 45-13-3 Brain Neurosecretory cells Corpus cardiacum PTTH Corpus allatum Low JH Prothoracic gland Ecdysone Juvenile hormone (JH) EARLYLARVA LATER LARVA PUPA ADULT

  24. Coordination of Endocrine and Nervous Systems in Vertebrates • The hypothalamus receives information from the nervous system and initiates responses through the endocrine system • Attached to the hypothalamus is the pituitary gland composed of the posterior pituitary and anterior pituitary • The posterior pituitary stores and secretes hormones that are made in the hypothalamus • The anterior pituitary makes and releases hormones under regulation of the hypothalamus

  25. Fig. 45-14 Cerebrum Thalamus Pineal gland Hypothalamus Cerebellum Pituitary gland Spinal cord Hypothalamus Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary

  26. Table 45-1b

  27. Table 45-1c

  28. Table 45-1d

  29. Oxytocin induces uterine contractions and the release of milk • Suckling sends a message to the hypothalamus via the nervous system to release oxytocin, which further stimulates the milk glands • This is an example of positive feedback, where the stimulus leads to an even greater response • Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances water reabsorption in the kidneys

  30. Fig. 45-15 Hypothalamus Neurosecretorycells of thehypothalamus Axon Posterior pituitary Anterior pituitary HORMONE Oxytocin ADH TARGET Kidney tubules Mammary glands,uterine muscles

  31. Hormone Cascade Pathways • A hormone can stimulate the release of a series of other hormones, the last of which activates a nonendocrine target cell; this is called a hormone cascade pathway • The release of thyroid hormone results from a hormone cascade pathway involving the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and thyroid gland • Hormone cascade pathways are usually regulated by negative feedback

  32. Fig. 45-18-3 Pathway Example Stimulus Cold Sensoryneuron – Hypothalamus secretesthyrotropin-releasinghormone (TRH ) Neurosecretorycell Bloodvessel – Anterior pituitary secretes thyroid-stimulatinghormone (TSHor thyrotropin ) Negative feedback Thyroid gland secretes thyroid hormone (T3 and T4 ) Targetcells Body tissues Increased cellularmetabolism Response

  33. Fig. 45-21 Stress Nervesignals Hypothalamus Spinal cord Releasinghormone Nervecell Anterior pituitary Blood vessel ACTH Adrenal medulla Adrenal cortex Adrenalgland Kidney (a) Short-term stress response (b) Long-term stress response Effects ofmineralocorticoids: Effects ofglucocorticoids: Effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine: 1. Glycogen broken down to glucose; increased blood glucose 1. Retention of sodium ions and water by kidneys 1. Proteins and fats broken down and converted to glucose, leading to increased blood glucose 2. Increased blood pressure3. Increased breathing rate4. Increased metabolic rate 2. Increased blood volume and blood pressure 2. Possible suppression of immune system 5. Change in blood flow patterns, leading to increased alertness and decreased digestive, excretory, and reproductive system activity

  34. Gonadal Sex Hormones • The gonads, testes and ovaries, produce most of the sex hormones: androgens, estrogens, and progestins • All three sex hormones are found in both males and females, but in different amounts

  35. The testes primarily synthesize androgens, mainly testosterone, which stimulate development and maintenance of the male reproductive system • Testosterone causes an increase in muscle and bone mass and is often taken as a supplement to cause muscle growth, which carries health risks

  36. Estrogens, most importantly estradiol, are responsible for maintenance of the female reproductive system and the development of female secondary sex characteristics • In mammals, progestins, which include progesterone, are primarily involved in preparing and maintaining the uterus • Synthesis of the sex hormones is controlled by FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary

  37. Melatonin and Biorhythms • The pineal gland, located in the brain, secretes melatonin • Light/dark cycles control release of melatonin • Primary functions of melatonin appear to relate to biological rhythms associated with reproduction

  38. You should now be able to: • Distinguish between the following pairs of terms: hormones and local regulators, paracrine and autocrine signals • Describe the evidence that steroid hormones have intracellular receptors, while water-soluble hormones have cell-surface receptors • Explain how the antagonistic hormones insulin and glucagon regulate carbohydrate metabolism • Distinguish between type 1 and type 2 diabetes

  39. CH 46 Animal Reproduction

  40. Concept 46.1: Both asexual and sexual reproduction occur in the animal kingdom • Sexual reproduction is the creation of an offspring by fusion of a male gamete (sperm) and female gamete (egg) to form a zygote • Asexual reproduction is creation of offspring without the fusion of egg and sperm

  41. Fig. 46-2

  42. In budding, new individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones • Fragmentation is breaking of the body into pieces, some or all of which develop into adults • Fragmentation must be accompanied by regeneration, regrowth of lost body parts • Parthenogenesis is the development of a new individual from an unfertilized egg

  43. Fig. 46-3 Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction Female Generation 1 Female Generation 2 Male Generation 3 Generation 4

  44. Sexual reproduction results in genetic recombination, which provides potential advantages: • An increase in variation in offspring, providing an increase in the reproductive success of parents in changing environments • An increase in the rate of adaptation • A shuffling of genes and the elimination of harmful genes from a population

  45. Sexual reproduction is a special problem for organisms that seldom encounter a mate • One solution is hermaphroditism, in which each individual has male and female reproductive systems • Some hermaphrodites can self-fertilize

  46. Individuals of some species undergo sex reversals (like Cichlids!) • Some species exhibit male to female reversal (for example, certain oysters), while others exhibit female to male reversal (for example, a coral reef fish)

  47. Concept 46.2: Fertilization depends on mechanisms that bring together sperm and eggs of the same species • The mechanisms of fertilization, the union of egg and sperm, play an important part in sexual reproduction • In external fertilization, eggs shed by the female are fertilized by sperm in the external environment

  48. Fig. 46-5 Eggs

  49. In internal fertilization, sperm are deposited in or near the female reproductive tract, and fertilization occurs within the tract • Internal fertilization requires behavioral interactions and compatible copulatory organs • All fertilization requires critical timing, often mediated by environmental cues, pheromones, and/or courtship behavior

  50. Ensuring the Survival of Offspring • All species produce more offspring than the environment can handle, and the proportion that survives is quite small • Species with external fertilization produce more gametes than species with internal fertilization

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